Charyapada
The Charyapada is a collection of mystical poems, songs of realization in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism from the tantric tradition in Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
It was written between the 8th and 12th centuries in an Abahatta that was the ancestor of the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Sylheti, Odia, Magahi, Maithili, and many other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, and it is said to be the oldest collection of verses written in those languages. A palm-leaf manuscript of the Charyapada was rediscovered in the early 20th century by Haraprasad Shastri at the Nepal Royal Court Library. The Charyapada was also preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist canon.
As songs of realization, the Charyapada were intended to be sung. These songs of realisation were spontaneously composed verses that expressed a practitioner's experience of the enlightened state. Miranda Shaw describes how songs of realization were an element of the ritual gathering of practitioners in a ganachakra:
Discovery
The rediscovery of the Charyapada is credited to Haraprasad Shastri, a 19th-century Sanskrit scholar and historian of Bengali literature who, during his third visit to Nepal in 1907, chanced upon 50 verses at the Royal library of the Nepalese kings. Written on trimmed palm leaves of 12.8×0.9 inches in a language often referred to as sāndhyabhāṣa or twilight language, a semantic predecessor of modern Bengali, the collection came to be called Charyapada and also Charyagiti by some. At that time, Shastri was a librarian of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, and was engaged in a self-assigned mission to trace and track ancient Bengali manuscripts. His first and second trips to Nepal in 1897 and 1898 met with some success, as he was able to collect a number of folkloric tales written in Pali and Sanskrit. However, after he rediscovered the treasure manuscripts in 1907, he published this collections in a single volume in 1916. According to some historians, there may very likely have been at least 51 original verses which were lost due to absence of proper preservation.Manuscripts
The original palm-leaf manuscript of the Charyapada, or Caryācaryāviniścaya, spanning 47 padas along with a Sanskrit commentary, was edited by Shastri and published from Bangiya Sahitya Parishad as a part of his Hajar Bacharer Purano Bangala Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha in 1916 under the name of Charyacharyavinishchayah. This manuscript is presently preserved at the National Archives of Nepal. Prabodhchandra Bagchi later published a manuscript of a Tibetan translation containing 50 verses.The Tibetan translation provided additional information, including that the Sanskrit commentary in the manuscript, known as Charyagiti-koshavrtti, was written by Munidatta. It also mentions that the original text was translated by Shilachari and its commentary by Munidatta was translated by Chandrakirti or Kirtichandra.
Poets
The manuscript of the Charyapada discovered by Haraprasad Shastri from Nepal consists of 47 padas. The title-page, the colophon, and pages 36, 37, 38, 39, and 66 were missing in this manuscript. The 47 verses of this manuscript were composed by 22 of the Mahasiddhas, or Siddhacharyas, whose names are mentioned at the beginning of each pada. Some parts of the manuscripts are lost; however, in the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, a translation of 50 padas is found, which includes padas 24, 25, and 48, and the complete pada 23. Pada 25 was written by the Siddhacharya poet Tantripāda, whose work was previously missing. In his commentary on pada 10, Munidatta mentions the name of another Siddhacharya poet, Ladidombipāda, but no pada written by him has been discovered so far.The names of the Siddhacharyas in Sanskrit, and the raga in which the verse was to be sung, are mentioned prior to each pada. The Sanskrit names of the Siddhacharya poets were likely assigned to each pada by the commentator Munidatta. Modern scholars doubt whether these assignments are proper, on the basis of the internal evidences and other literary sources. Controversies also exist among scholars as to the original names of the Siddhacharyas.
The poets and their works as mentioned in the text are as follows:
| Poet | Pada |
| Luipāda | 1,29 |
| Kukkuripāda | 2, 20, 48 |
| Virubāpāda | 3 |
| Gundaripāda | 4 |
| Chatillapāda | 5 |
| Bhusukupāda | 6, 21, 23, 27, 30, 41, 43, 49 |
| Kānhapāda | 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 24, 36, 40, 42, 45 |
| Kambalāmbarapāda | 8 |
| Dombipāda | 14 |
| Shantipāda | 15, 26 |
| Mahidharapāda | 16 |
| Vināpāda | 17 |
| Sarahapāda | 22, 32, 38, 39 |
| Shabarapāda | 28, 50 |
| Āryadevapāda | 31 |
| Dhendhanapāda | 33 |
| Darikapāda | 34 |
| Bhādepāda | 35 |
| Tādakapāda | 37 |
| Kankanapāda | 44 |
| Jayanandipāda | 46 |
| Dhāmapāda | 47 |
| Tantripāda | 25 |
Nature
The language of the Charyapada is rather symbolic in nature. So in many cases the literal meaning of a word does not make any sense. As a result, every poem has a descriptive or narrative surface meaning but also encodes tantric Buddhist teachings. Some experts believe this was to conceal sacred knowledge from the uninitiated, while others hold that it was to avoid religious persecution. Attempts have been made to decipher the secret tantric meanings of the Charyapada.Period
Haraprasad Shastri, who rediscovered the Charyapada, conjectured that it was written during the 10th century. However, according to Suniti Kumar Chatterji, it was composed between 10th and 12th century. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi upholds this view. Sukumar Sen, while supporting this view, also states that the Charyapada could have been written between the 11th and 14th centuries. However, Muhammad Shahidullah was of the opinion that the Charyapada dates back to an even earlier time. He maintained that it was likely to have been composed between 7th and 11th century. Rahul Sankrityayan thought that the Charyapada was probably written between 8th and 11th century.Controversies
There is controversy about the meaning of some words throughout the Charyapada. Different linguists have diverse opinions about the literal and figurative meanings of certain words.It has been said that the Charyapada was written in an early form of Odia.
Language
Haraprasad Shastri, in his introduction to the Charyacharya-vinishchaya, referred to the enigmatic language of its verses as "twilight language", or Alo-andhari based on the Sanskrit commentary of Munidatta. Vidhushekhara Shastri, on the basis of evidence from a number of Buddhist texts, later referred to this language as 'Intentional Language'.The padas were written by poets from different regions, and it is natural that they would display linguistic affinities from these regions. Different scholars have noted the affinities of the language of the Charyapada with Assamese, Odia, Bengali, and Maithili.
Affinities with Assamese
was from Kamarupa and wrote two charyas. Sarahapa, another poet, is said to have been from Rani, a place close to present-day Guwahati. Some of the affinities with Assamese are:Negatives – the negative particle in Assamese comes ahead of the verb: na jãi ; na jivami ; na chadaa, na jani, na disaa. Charya 15 has 9 such forms.
Present participles – the suffix -ante is used as in Assamese of the Vaishnava period: jvante ; sunante etc.
Incomplete verb forms – suffixes -i and -iya used in modern and old Assamese respectively: kari ; cumbi ; maria ; laia etc.
Present indefinite verb forms – -ai: bhanai ; tarai ; pivai.
Future – the -iva suffix: haiba ; kariba.
Nominative case ending – case ending in e: kumbhire khaa, core nila.
Instrumental case ending – case ending -e and -era: uju bate gela ; kuthare chijaa.
The vocabulary of the Charyapadas includes non-tatsama words which are typically Assamese, such as dala, thira kari, tai, uju, caka etc.
Affinities with Bengali
A number of Siddhacharyas who wrote the verses of Charyapada were from Bengal. Shabarpa, Kukkuripa and Bhusukupa were born in different parts of Bengal. Some of the affinities with Bengali are:Genitive -era, -ara;
Locative -Te;
Nominative -Ta;
Present indefinite verb -Ai;
Post-positional words like majha, antara, sanga;
Past and future bases -il-, -ib-;
Present participle -anta;
Conjunctive indeclinable -ia;
Conjunctive conditional -ite;
Passive -ia-
Substantive roots ach and thak.
Affinities with Odia
The beginnings of Odia poetry coincide with the development of Charya Sahitya, the literature thus started by Mahayana Buddhist poets. This literature was written in a specific metaphor named “Sandhya Bhasha” and the poets like Kanhupa are from the territory of Odisha. The language of Charya was considered as Prakrita. In his book Karunakar Kar has mentioned that Odisha is the origin of Charyapada as the Vajrayana school of Buddhism evolved there and started female worship in Buddhism. Worship of Matri Dakini and the practice of "Kaya sadhana" are the outcome of such new culture. Buddhist scholars like Lakshminkara and Padmasambhava were born in Odisha. The ideas and experience of Kaya sadhana and Shaki upasana which were created by Adi siddhas and have poetic expressions are found in the lyrics of Charyapada. These were the first ever found literary documentation of Prakrit and Apabhramsa which are the primitive form of languages of eastern Indian origin. The poets of Charyapada prominently are from this region and their thought and writing style has influenced the poems in early Odia literature which is evidently prominent in the 16th century Odia poetry written majorly in Panchasakha period.The language of Kanhupa's poetry bears a very strong resemblance to Odia. For example, :
Ekasa paduma chowshathi pakhudi
Tahin chadhi nachaa dombi bapudi
Paduma, Chausathi, Pakhudi
Tahin, Chadhi, nachaa, Dombi, Bapudi
or
Hali Dombi, Tote puchhami sadbhabe.
Isisi jasi dombi kahari nabe.
Your hut stands outside the city
Oh, untouchable maid
The bald Brahmin passes sneaking close by
Oh, my maid, I would make you my companion
Kanha is a kapali, a yogi
He is naked and has no disgust
There is a lotus with sixty-four petals
Upon that the maid will climb with this poor self and dance.
some of the writing in Jayadeva's Gitagovinda have "Ardhamagadhi padashrita giti" that is influenced by Charyagiti.
Melodies
From the mention of the name of the Rāga for the each Pada at the beginning of it in the manuscript, it seems that these Padas were actually sung. All 50 Padas were set to the tunes of different Rāgas. The most common Rāga for Charyapada songs was Patamanjari.| Raga | Pada |
| Patamanjari | 1, 6, 7, 9, 11, 17, 20, 29, 31, 33, 36 |
| Gabadā or Gaudā | 2, 3, 18 |
| Aru | 4 |
| Gurjari, Gunjari or Kanha-Gunjari | 5, 22, 41, 47 |
| Devakri | 8 |
| Deshākha | 10, 32 |
| Kāmod | 13, 27, 37, 42 |
| Dhanasi or Dhanashri | 14 |
| Rāmakri | 15, 50 |
| Balāddi or Barādi | 21, 23, 28, 34 |
| Shabari | 26, 46 |
| Mallāri | 30, 35, 44, 45, 49 |
| Mālasi | 39 |
| Mālasi-Gaburā | 40 |
| Bangāl | 43 |
| Bhairavi | 12, 16, 19, 38 |
While some of these Rāgas are extinct, the names of some of these Rāgas may actually be variant names of popular Rāgas we know today.
Glimpses of social life
Many poems provide a realistic picture of early medieval society in eastern India and Assam. Geographical locations, namely Banga and Kamarupa, are referred to in the poems. Two rivers which are named are the Ganga and Yamuna. River Padma is also referred to as a canal. No reference to agriculture is available. References to female prostitution occur as well. The boat was the main mode of transport. Some description of wedding ceremonies are also given.Translations
Produced below is English translation of the first verse of the Charyapada. It was composed by Buddhist Siddhacharya poet Luipa.The body is like the finest tree, with five branches.
Darkness enters the restless mind.
Strengthen the quantity of Great Bliss, says Luyi.
Learn from asking the Guru.
Why does one meditate?
Surely one dies of happiness or unhappiness.
Set aside binding and fastening in false hope.
Embrace the wings of the Void.
Luyi says : I have seen this in meditation
Inhalation and exhalation are seated on two stools.
Sarahapāda says :Sarah vonnoti bor sun gohali ki mo Duth Bolande
Meaning-It is better than empty Byre than a naughty Cow
Kānhapāda says :Apona Mangshe Horina Boiri
Meaning-Deer is enemy itself by its meat
This piece has been translated into English by Hasna Jasimuddin Moudud.