Uniform Code of Military Justice


The Uniform Code of Military Justice is the foundation of military law in the United States. It was established by the United States Congress in accordance with the authority given by the United States Constitution in Article I, Section 8, which provides that "The Congress shall have Power....To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval forces".

History

On 30 June 1775, the Second Continental Congress established 69 Articles of War to govern the conduct of the Continental Army.
Effective upon its ratification in 1788, Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution provided that Congress has the power to regulate the land and naval forces. On 10 April 1806, the United States Congress enacted 101 Articles of War, which were not significantly revised until over a century later. Discipline in the sea services was provided under the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy. While the Articles of War evolved during the first half of the twentieth century, being amended in 1916, 1920, and culminating with the substantial reforms in the 1948 version pursuant to the Selective Service Act of 1948 , its naval counterpart remained little changed by comparison. The military justice system continued to operate under the Articles of War and Articles for the Government of the Navy until 31 May 1951, when the Uniform Code of Military Justice went into effect.
The UCMJ was passed by Congress on 5 May 1950, and signed into law by President Harry S. Truman the next day. It took effect on 31 May 1951. The word uniform in the Code's title refers to its consistent application to all the armed services in place of the earlier Articles of War, Articles of Government, and Disciplinary Laws of the individual services.
The UCMJ, the Rules for Courts-Martial, and the Military Rules of Evidence have evolved since their implementation, often paralleling the development of the federal civilian criminal justice system. In some ways, the UCMJ has been ahead of changes in the civilian criminal justice system. For example, a rights-warning statement similar to the Miranda warnings was required by Art. 31 a decade and a half before the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Miranda v. Arizona; Article 38 ) continued the 1948 Articles of War guarantee that qualified defense counsel be provided to all accused without regard to indigence, whereas the U.S. Supreme Court only guaranteed the provision of counsel to indigents in Gideon v. Wainwright. Additionally, the role of what was originally a court-martial's non-voting "law member" developed into the present office of military judge whose capacity is little different from that of an Article III judge in a U.S. district court. At the same time, the "court-martial" itself has converted from being essentially a board of inquiry/review presiding over the trial, into a jury of military service-members. The current version of the UCMJ is printed in latest edition of the Manual for Courts-Martial, incorporating changes made by the President and National Defense Authorization Acts of 2006 and 2007.

Jurisdiction

Courts-martial

are conducted under the UCMJ and the Manual for Courts-Martial. If the trial results in a conviction, the case is reviewed by the convening authority – the commanding officer who referred the case for trial by court-martial. The convening authority has discretion to mitigate the findings and sentence, set aside convictions, and/or to remand convictions and/or sentences back to a court-martial for re-hearing.
If the sentence, as approved by the convening authority, includes death, a bad conduct discharge, a dishonorable discharge, dismissal of an officer, or confinement for one year or more, the case is reviewed by an intermediate court. There are four such courts – the Army Court of Criminal Appeals, the Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals, the Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals.
After review by any of these intermediate courts, the next level of appeal is the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces. The Supreme Court of the United States has discretion under to review cases under the UCMJ on direct appeal where the CAAF has conducted a mandatory review, granted discretionary review of a petition, or otherwise granted relief. If the CAAF denies a petition for review or a writ appeal, consideration by the Supreme Court may be obtained only through collateral review. Since 2007, several bills have been introduced into Congress to expand the accessibility of service members to the Supreme Court. See also Equal Justice for United States Military Personnel legislation.

Personal jurisdiction

Within the exceptions below, as codified in Article 2 of the UCMJ, personal jurisdiction attaches, regardless of the physical global location of the servicemember, over all members of the uniformed services of the United States: the Air Force, Army, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, Navy, NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, and Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. While the Coast Guard is administered under Title 14 of the United States Code when not operating as part of the U.S. Navy, individuals commissioned or enlisted in the Coast Guard are subject to the UCMJ as an Armed Force. However, commissioned members of the NOAA and PHS, as uniformed services, are only subject to the UCMJ when attached or detailed to a military unit by competent orders, or when militarized by Presidential executive order during a national emergency or declaration of war.
Members of the military Reserve Components under Title 10 of the United States Code, or Title 14 of the United States Code, Coast Guard Reserve when not operating as part of the U.S. Navy, are subject to the UCMJ when they are:
  1. Full-Time Support personnel on active duty orders serving pursuant to the authority of 10 USC 10211 or 10 USC 12310, including:
  2. # Army/Air Force "Active Guard and Reserve,"
  3. # Navy "Full-time Support,"
  4. # Marine Corps "Active Reserve," or
  5. # Coast Guard "Reserve Program Administrators."
  6. "Traditional" reservists performing either:
  7. # Full-time active duty service under orders for a specific period, i.e., Annual Training, Active Duty for Training, Active Duty for Operational Support, Active Duty Special Work, Mobilization or Recall to Active Duty, Canvasser Recruiter, etc., or
  8. # Performing part-time Inactive Duty, i.e., Inactive Duty Training, Inactive Duty Travel and Training, Unit Training Assembly, Additional Training Periods, Additional Flying Training Periods, Reserve Management Periods, etc., all of which are colloquially known as "drills."
  9. # Retired Reservists who are either recalled to active duty pursuant to Secretarial authority, or who are receiving medical treatment in an Armed Forces hospital.
Soldiers and airmen in the National Guard of the United States are subject to the UCMJ only if activated in a Federal capacity under Title 10 by an executive order issued by the President, or during their Annual Training periods, which are orders issued under Title 10, during which periods of duty they are federalized into the National Guard of the United States. Otherwise, members of the National Guard are usually exempt from the UCMJ. However, under Title 32 orders, or State Active Duty orders issued directly under State authority, individual members of the Army National Guard and Air Force National Guard are still subject to their respective State codes of Military Justice, which often resemble the UCMJ very closely, and/or their State civil and criminal laws.
Several States also authorize either naval or military organized militia forces. These are collectively known as the State Guard. State Guard organizations are organized, trained, equipped, armed, disciplined, and administered under each State's own sovereign authority, and are not subject to a Federal recall to active duty, nor are the individual members subject to the UCMJ in their capacities as members of the State Guard. State Guard organizations typically are organized similarly to a military force, and usually report to the senior National Guard officer in each State, known as the Adjutant General. In this sense, the State Guard are auxiliaries to each State's Constitutionally authorized organized militia forces, the Army and Air Force National Guard. The State Guard is often specialized, based on each State's requirements, for missions such as wilderness search and rescue, light aviation, forest firefighting, law enforcement, or general emergency management roles. Under each State's own authorities, State Guard members may be ordered to State Active Duty, in a status similar to National Guard members in a Title 32 status but solely under State authority and discipline, and also may be provided with the training, equipment, and authority to act as law enforcement officers with powers of arrest. Each State sets the requirements to join, remain, be promoted or rewarded, and conditions of employment such as a minimum amount of duty performed in a year, and whether any duty is paid or nonpaid, and whether the individuals are covered by various civil service or retirement pension plans. Most State Guard duty is performed without pay, in a volunteer status. While the State Guard organizations are subject to recall to SAD, or other workforce requirements as imposed by their State, they are not subject to either partial or full mobilization authorities under Title 10. However, the individual State Guard members often have dual-status as both State Guard and a Federally recognized uniformed services member, such as a Texas State Guard officer who is also a retired US military officer. Such an individual could be recalled to active duty under both SAD as a State Guard member, or under one of the various authorities to recall retired or reserve military members to active duty, but not both because a Federal status trumps a State status. State Guard members could thus be subject to the UCMJ at all times under their Federal status, and under specific State military and civil/criminal codes under their State status.
Cadets and midshipmen at the United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, and United States Coast Guard Academy, are subject to the UCMJ at all times because they are in an active duty status as members of the Regular component while serving at a Military Service Academy, per Article 2 of UCMJ. Army and Air Force Reserve Officers' Training Corps cadets are not subject to the UCMJ, even while on inactive or active duty training. However, the midshipmen of the United States Merchant Marine Academy and Navy ROTC midshipmen are subject to the UCMJ when on inactive or active duty for training orders, as slightly different legal jurisdiction applies to Midshipmen, US Navy Reserve.
Members of military auxiliaries such as the Civil Air Patrol and the Coast Guard Auxiliary are not subject to the UCMJ, even when participating in missions assigned by the military or other branches of government. However, members of the Coast Guard Auxiliary can be called by the Commandant of the Coast Guard into the Temporary Reserve of the Coast Guard, in which case they become subject to the UCMJ.
Additionally, the following categories of servicemembers are subject to the UCMJ as indicated:
  1. Retired members of the Regular Component who are entitled to retirement pay, per Article 2 of UCMJ, regardless of the authority under which retired from active service and transferred to the Retired List of their respective Service's Regular Component,
  2. Retired members of the Reserve Component, whether entitled to retired pay or awaiting retired pay at age 60 as a Gray Area reserve retiree, who are receiving hospital care from an Armed Force, per Article 2 of UCMJ,
  3. Members of the Fleet Reserve/Fleet Marine Corps Reserve, as enlisted retired Navy or Marine Corps personnel who have not yet served a total of 30 years of combined active, fleet reserve, and retired service, per Article 2 of UCMJ. Both Regular Component and Reserve Component enlisted retirees are transferred to the FR/FMCR upon retirement if they have less than 30 total years, but more than 20 cumulative years of active service, and remain subject to the UCMJ in that status until they complete 30 total years of active and fleet reserve service, and are transferred to their respective original Service Retired List. The FR/FMCR is not applicable to any officers, any servicemember retired for disability and transferred to the Temporary or Permanent Disability Retired Lists, nor any enlisted retirees except those of the Navy and Marine Corps as noted above.
  4. Persons in custody of the U.S. Armed Forces serving a sentence imposed by a court-martial, per Article 2 of UCMJ,
  5. Members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Public Health Service, and other organizations, when assigned to and serving with the armed forces, per Article 2 of UCMJ,
  6. Prisoners of War /Enemy Prisoners of War in the custody of the U.S. Armed Forces, per Article 2 of UCMJ,
  7. In time of declared war or a contingency operation, persons serving with or accompanying a US armed force in the field, per Article 2, and
  8. Detained medical personnel and military chaplains in the custody of the U.S. Armed Forces.

    Non-judicial punishment

Under Article 15 of the Code, specified military commanders have the authority to exercise non-judicial punishment over their subordinates for minor breaches of discipline. These punishments are carried out after a hearing before the commander, but without a judge or jury. Punishments are limited to reduction in rank, loss of pay, restriction of privileges, extra-duty, reprimands, and, aboard ships, confinement. Guidelines for the imposition of NJP are contained in Part V of the Manual for Courts-Martial and the various service regulations.

Complaints of wrongs and loss of property

Article 138 of the UCMJ provides that any service member may bring a "complaint of wrongs" against their commanding officer to the next senior officer exercising general court-martial authority over their commander. That officer will investigate the complaint of wrongs, and then report the findings of the investigation to the service Secretary concerned.
Article 139 provides for the convening of an investigation board of from one to three commissioned officers to investigate and adjudicate claims of willful damage, destruction, or theft of personal property, only if both parties are subject to the Code.

Current subchapters

The UCMJ is found in Title 10, Subtitle A, Part II, Chapter 47 of the United States Code.
SubchapterTitleSectionArticles
IGeneral Provisions1–6
IIApprehension and Restraint7–14
IIINon-Judicial Punishment15
IVCourt-Martial Jurisdiction16–21
VComposition of Courts-Martial22–29
VIPre-Trial Procedure30–35
VIITrial Procedure36–54
VIIISentences55–58
IXPost-Trial Procedure and Review of Courts-Martial59–76
XPunitive Articles77–134
XIMiscellaneous Provisions135–140
XIICourt of Appeals for the Armed Forces141–146

General provisions

Subchapter I, "General Provisions" has six sections :
SectionArticleTitle
1Definitions
2Persons subject to this chapter
3Jurisdiction to try certain personnel
4Dismissed officer's right to trial by court-martial
5Territorial applicability of this chapter
6Judge advocates and legal officers
6aInvestigation and disposition of matters pertaining to the fitness of military judges

Article 1, defines the following terms used in the rest of the UCMJ: Judge Advocate General, the Navy, officer in charge, superior commissioned officer, cadet, midshipman, military, accuser, military judge, law specialist, legal officer, judge advocate, record, classified information, and national security. This article also provides that, "The Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard when it is operating as a service in the Navy, shall be considered as one armed force" for the purposes of the UCMJ.

Pre-trial procedure

Under Article 31, coercive self-incrimination is prohibited as a right under the Fifth Amendment. Apprehending officers utilize the Article 31 warning and waiver as a means to prevent this self-incrimination, much like the Miranda warning. Article 31 was already well-established before Miranda.
Article 32 refers to the pre-trial investigation and hearing conducted before charges are referred to trial for court-martial. It may be conducted by a Judge Advocate General officer or non-JAG officer.

Punitive articles

Subchapter X, "Punitive Articles", is the subchapter that details offenses under the uniform code. The 2019 MCM incorporates both major and minor changes to certain articles, and relocates many articles; careful examination of the source document is required to ensure full understanding, and previous "cheat sheets" and training materials may therefore be outdated. Those articles with a title annotated by "*" were changed from the 2016 MCM:
SectionArticleTitle
77Principals
78*Accessory after the fact
79*Conviction of offense charged, lesser included offense, and attempts
80*Attempts
81Conspiracy
82*Soliciting commission of offenses
83*Malingering
84*Breach of medical quarantine
85Desertion
86Absence without leave
87*Missing movement; jumping from vessel
87a*Resistance, flight, breach of arrest, and escape
87b*Offenses against correctional custody and restriction
88Contempt toward officials
89*Disrespect toward superior commissioned officer; assault of superior commissioned officer
90*Willfully disobeying superior commissioned officer
91Insubordinate conduct toward warrant officer, noncommissioned officer, or petty officer
92Failure to obey order or regulation
93*Cruelty and maltreatment
93a*Prohibited activities with military recruit or trainee by person in position of special trust
94Mutiny or sedition
95*Offenses by sentinel or lookout
95a*Disrespect toward sentinel or lookout
96*Release of prisoner without proper authority; drinking with prisoner
97Unlawful detention
98*Misconduct as prisoner
99Misbehavior before the enemy
100Subordinate compelling surrender
101Improper use of countersign
102Forcing a safeguard
103*Spies
103a*Espionage
103b*Aiding the enemy
104*Public records offenses
104a*Fraudulent enlistment, appointment, or separation
104b*Unlawful enlistment, appointment, or separation
105*Forgery
105a*False or unauthorized pass offenses
106*Impersonation of officer, noncommissioned or petty officer, or agent or official
106a*Wearing unauthorized insignia, decoration, badge, ribbon, device, or lapel button
107*False official statements; false swearing
107a*Parole violation
108*Military property of the United States—Loss, damage, destruction, or wrongful disposition
108a*Captured or abandoned property
109*Property other than military property of United States–Waste, spoilage, or destruction
109a*Mail matter: wrongful taking, opening, etc
110*Improper hazarding of vessel or aircraft
111*Leaving scene of vehicle accident
112*Drunkenness and other incapacitation offenses
112aWrongful use, possession, etc., of controlled substances
113*Drunken or reckless operation of a vehicle, aircraft, or vessel
114*Endangerment offenses
115*Communicating threats
116Riot or breach of peace
117Provoking speeches or gestures
118*Murder
119*Manslaughter
119a*Death or injury of an unborn child
119b*Child endangerment
120*Rape and sexual assault generally
120a*Mails: deposit of obscene matter
120b*Rape and sexual assault of a child
120c*Other sexual misconduct
121*Larceny and wrongful appropriation
121a*Fraudulent use of credit cards, debit cards, and other access devices
121b*False pretenses to obtain services
122*Robbery
122a*Receiving stolen property
123*Offenses concerning Government computers
123a*Making, drawing, or uttering check, draft, or order without sufficient funds
124*Frauds against the United States
124a*Bribery
124b*Graft
125*Kidnapping
126*Arson; burning property with intent to defraud
127Extortion
128*Assault
128a*Maiming
129*Burglary; unlawful entry
130*Stalking
131Perjury
131a*Subornation of perjury
131b*Obstructing justice
131c*Misprision of serious offense
131d*Wrongful refusal to testify
131e*Prevention of authorized seizure of property
131f*Noncompliance with procedural rules
131g*Wrongful interference with adverse administrative proceeding
132*Retaliation
133*Conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman
134*General article

General article (Article 134)

The general article authorizes the prosecution of offenses not specifically detailed by any other article: "...all disorders and neglects to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces, all conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces, and crimes and offenses not capital, of which persons subject to this chapter may be guilty." Clause 1 of the article involves disorders and neglect, "...to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces." Clause 2 involves, "...conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces." Clause 3 deals with non-capital offenses violating other federal law; under this clause, any such offense created by federal statute may be prosecuted under Article 134. United States v. Perkins, 47 C.M.R. 259.
The most recent version of the Manual for Courts-Martial lists the following offenses commonly prosecuted under Article 134: