Malay grammar
Malay grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the Malay language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses and sentences.
In Malay, there are four basic parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and grammatical function words. Nouns and verbs may be basic roots, but frequently they are derived from other words by means of prefixes and suffixes.
Word formation
Malay is an agglutinative language, and new words are formed by three methods. New words can be created by attaching affixes onto a root word, formation of a compound word, or repetition of words or portions of words.Affixes
Root words are either nouns or verbs, which can be affixed to derive new words, e.g., masak yields memasak, memasakkan, dimasak as well as pemasak, masakan. Many initial consonants undergo mutation when prefixes are added: e.g., sapu becomes penyapu ; panggil becomes memanggil, tapis becomes menapis.Other examples of the use of affixes to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the word ajar :
- ajar = teach
- ajaran = teachings
- belajar = to learn
- mengajar = to teach
- diajar = being taught
- diajarkan = being taught
- mempelajari = to study
- dipelajari = being studied
- pelajar = student
- pengajar = teacher
- pelajaran = subject, education
- pengajaran = lesson, moral of story
- pembelajaran = learning
- terajar = taught
- terpelajar = well-educated, literally "been taught"
- berpelajaran = is educated, literally "has education"
Noun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words. The following are examples of noun affixes:
| Type of noun affixes | Affix | Example of root word | Example of derived word |
| Prefix | pə- ~ pəng- | duduk | penduduk |
| kə- | hendak | kehendak | |
| juru- | wang | juruwang | |
| Infix | tunjuk | telunjuk | |
| kelut | kemelut | ||
| gigi | gerigi | ||
| Suffix | -an | bangun | bangunan |
| Circumfix | kə-...-an | raja | kerajaan |
| pə-...-an pəng-...-an | kerja | pekerjaan |
The prefix per- drops its r before r, l and frequently before p, t, k. In some words it is peng-; though formally distinct, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Malay grammar books.
Similarly, verb affixes are attached to root words to form verbs. In Malay, there are:
| Type of verb affixes | Affix | Example of root word | Example of derived word |
| Prefix | bər- | ajar | belajar |
| məng- | tolong | menolong | |
| di- | ambil | diambil | |
| məmpər- | kemas | memperkemas | |
| dipər- | dalam | diperdalam | |
| tər- | makan | termakan | |
| Suffix | -kan | letak | letakkan |
| -i | jauh | jauhi | |
| Circumfix | bər-...-an | pasang | berpasangan |
| bər-...-kan | dasar | berdasarkan | |
| məng-...-kan | pasti | memastikan | |
| məng-...-i | teman | menemani | |
| məmpər-...-kan | guna | mempergunakan | |
| məmpər-...-i | ajar | mempelajari | |
| kə-...-an | hilang | kehilangan | |
| di-...-i | sakit | disakiti | |
| di-...-kan | benar | dibenarkan | |
| dipər-...-kan | kenal | diperkenalkan |
Adjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:
| Type of adjective affixes | Affix | Example of root word | Example of derived word |
| Prefix | tər- | kenal | terkenal |
| sə- | lari | selari | |
| Infix | serak | selerak | |
| cerlang | cemerlang | ||
| sabut | serabut | ||
| Circumfix | kə-...-an | barat | kebaratan |
In addition to these affixes, Malay also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example, maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro- etc.
Reduplication
Reduplication in the Malay language is a very productive process. It is mainly used for forming plurals, but sometimes it may alter the meaning of the whole word, or change the usage of the word in sentences.Forms
There are four types of words reduplication in Malay, namely- Full reduplication or Kata Ulang Utuh
- Partial reduplication or Kata Ulang Sebagian
- Rhythmic reduplication or Kata Ulang Salin Suara )
- Reduplication of meaning
Partial reduplication repeats only the initial consonant of the word, such as dedaun from the word daun, and tetangga from the word tangga. The words are usually not separated by spaces or punctuation, and is considered a single word.
Rhythmic reduplication repeats the whole word, but one or more of its phonemes are altered. For example, the word gerak can be reduplicated rhythmically to form gerak-gerik by altering the vowel. The reduplication can also be formed by altering the consonant, e.g., in sayur-mayur from the root word sayur.
Nouns
Common derivational affixes for nouns are peng-/per-/juru-, -an, ke-...-an, per-/peng-...-an.Gender
Malay does not make use of grammatical gender. There are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word used for he and she is also used for his and her. Most of the words that refer to people have a form that does not distinguish between the sexes. For example, adik can refer to a younger sibling of either sex. To specify the natural gender of a noun, an adjective must be added: adik lelaki corresponds to "brother" but really means "male younger sibling". There are some words that are gendered. For instance, puteri means "princess" and putera means "prince"; words like these are usually borrowed from other languages.Number
There is no grammatical plural in Malay. Thus orang may mean either "person" or "people". Plurality is expressed by the context, or the usage of words such as numerals, beberapa "some", or semua "all" that express plurality. In many cases, it simply isn't relevant to the speaker.Reduplication is commonly used to emphasize plurality. However, reduplication has many other functions. For example, orang-orang means " people", but orang-orangan means "scarecrow". Similarly, while hati means "heart" or "liver", hati-hati is a verb meaning "to be careful". Also, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as orang-orangan "scarecrow/scarecrows", biri-biri "a/some sheep" and kupu-kupu "butterfly/butterflies". Some reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in sayur-mayur " vegetables".
Distributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: pohon "tree", pepohonan "flora, trees"; rumah "house", perumahan "housing, houses"; gunung "mountain", pegunungan "mountain range, mountains".
Quantity words come before the noun: səribu orang "a thousand people", beberapa pegunungan "a series of mountain ranges", beberapa kupu-kupu "some butterflies".
Pronouns
Personal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns. They are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say "you". Commonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used ; kin terms, including fictive kinship, are extremely common. However, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns ini "this, the" and itu "that, the".Personal pronouns
From the perspective of a European language, Malay boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee. These are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker.This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used pronouns of the Malay language:
First person pronouns
Notable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between two forms of "we": kita and kami. The distinction is increasingly confused in colloquial Indonesian.Saya and aku are the two major forms of "I"; saya is the more formal form, whereas aku is used with close acquittances like family and friends, and between lovers. Saya may also be used for "we", but in such cases it is usually used with sekalian or semua "all"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with inclusive kami or exclusive kita. Less common are hamba "slave", hamba tuan, hamba datok, beta, patik, kami, kita, teman, and kawan.
Second person pronouns
There are three common forms of "you", anda, kamu, and kalian "y'all". Anda is used in formal contexts like in advertisements and business or to show respect, while kamu is used in informal situations. Anda sekalian or Anda semua are polite plural. Engkau orang —contracted to kau orang or korang—is used to address subjects plural in the most informal context.Engkau and hang are used to social inferiors or equals, awak to equals, and encik is polite, traditionally used for people without title. The compounds 'makcik and pakcik are used with village elders one is well acquainted with or the guest of.
Tuanku is used by commoners to address royal members.
Third person pronouns
The common word for "s/he" is ia, which has the object and emphatic/focused form dia; consequently ia has been recently used to refer to animals. Beliau is respectful. As with the English "you", names and kin terms are extremely common. Colloquially, dia orang is commonly used for the plural "they" whereas mereka "they", mereka itu, or orang itu "those people" are used in writing.Baginda - corresponding to "his/her Majesty/Highness" - is used for addressing royal figures and religious prophets, especially in Islamic literature.
Regional varieties
There are a large number of other words for "I" and "you", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages. Saudara or saudari show utmost respect. Daku and dikau are poetic or romantic. Indonesian gua and lu "you" are slang and extremely informal. In the dialect of the northern states of Malaysia - Kedah, Penang, Perlis and Perak typically "hang" is used as "you", while "hampa" or "hangpa" are used for the plural "you". In the state of Pahang, two variants for "I" and "you" exist, depending on location: in East Pahang, around Pekan, "kome" is used as "I" while in the west around Temerloh, "koi", "keh" or "kah" is used. "Kome" is also used in Kuala Kangsar, Perak, but instead it means "you". This allegedly originated from the fact that both the royal families of Pahang and Perak were descendants of the same ancient line.The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.
Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
| aku | -ku | mejaku |
| kamu | -mu | mejamu |
| engkau | -kau | mejakau |
| ia | -nya | mejanya |
There are also proclitic forms of aku and engkau, ku- and kau-. These are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:
Here ku-verb is used for a general report, aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic aku-lah meng-verb for focus on the pronoun.
Demonstrative pronouns
There are two demonstrative pronouns in Malay. Ini "this, these" is used for a noun generally near to the speaker. Itu "that, those" is used for a noun generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ini or itu. The word yang "which" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/someone, like English "this one" or "that one".| Pronoun | Malay | English |
| ini | buku ini | This book, these books, the book |
| ini | buku-buku ini | These books, the books |
| itu | kucing itu | That cat, those cats, the cat |
| itu | kucing-kucing itu | Those cats, the cats |
| Pronoun + yang | Example Sentence | English Meaning |
| Yang ini | Q: Anda mau membeli buku yang mana? A: Saya mau beli yang ini | Q: Which book do you wish to purchase? A: I would like this one |
| Yang itu | Q: Kucing mana yang makan tikusmu? A: Yang itu! | Q: Which cat ate your mouse? A: That one! |
Measure words
Another distinguishing feature of Malay is its use of measure words, also called classifiers. In this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, Burmese, and Bengali.Measure words are found in English two head of cattle, a loaf of bread, or this sheet of paper, where *two cattle, a bread, and this paper would be ungrammatical. The word satu reduces to se-, as it does in other compounds:
| measure word | used for measuring | literal translation | example |
| buah | things, large things, abstract nouns houses, cars, ships, mountains; books, rivers, chairs, some fruits, thoughts, etc. | 'fruit' | dua buah meja, lima buah rumah |
| ekor | animals | 'tail' | seekor ayam, tiga ekor kambing |
| orang | human beings | 'person' | seorang lelaki, enam orang petani, seratus orang murid |
| biji | smaller rounded objects most fruits, cups, nuts | 'grain' | sebiji/ sebutir telur, sebiji epal, sebutir/ butiran-butiran beras |
| batang | long stiff things trees, walking sticks, pencils | 'trunk, rod' | sebatang sungai, sebatang kayu |
| həlai, lai | things in thin layers or sheets paper, cloth, feathers, hair | 'leaf' | sepuluh helai pakaian |
| kəping | flat fragments slabs of stone, pieces of wood, pieces of bread, land, coins, paper | 'chip' | sekeping kertas |
| pucuk | letters, firearms, needles | 'sprout' | sepucuk surat |
| bilah | blades: knives, spears | 'lathe' | sebilah pisau |
Less common are
| bəntuk | rings, hooks | 'shape' | - |
| bidanɡ | mats, widths of cloth | 'breadth' | - |
| kuntum | flowers | 'blossom' | - |
| tangkai | flowers | 'stem' | - |
| kaki | long-stemmed flowers | 'leg' | - |
| urat | threads, sinew | 'fiber, vein' | - |
| pintu | houses in a row | 'door' | - |
| tangga | traditional houses with ladders | 'ladder' | - |
| patah | words, proverbs | 'fragment' | - |
| butir | smallest rounded objects smaller fruits, seeds, grains, rounds of ammunition, gems, points | 'particle' | commonly replaced with biji |
| puntung | stumps, stubs, butt ends of firewood, cigarettes, teeth | stump | - |
| potong | slices of bread etc. | 'cut' | - |
| kərat | 'fragment' | - | |
| utas | nets, cords, ribbons | 'cord' | - |
| carik | things easily torn, like paper | 'shred' | - |
| papan | bitter bean | 'board' | - |
Measure words are not necessary just to say "a": burung "a bird, birds". Using se- plus a measure word is closer to English "one" or "a certain":
Verbs
Verbs are not inflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs or by other tense indicators, such as sudah "already" and belum "not yet". On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote voice or intentional and accidental moods. Some of these affixes are ignored in colloquial speech.Examples of these are the prefixes di-, meng-, memper- and diper-, ber-, and ter- ; the suffixes -kan and -i ; and the circumfixes ber-...-an and ke-...-an.
- duduk "to sit down"
- mendudukkan "to sit someone down, give someone a seat, to appoint"
- menduduki "to sit on, to occupy"
- didudukkan "to be given a seat, to be appointed"
- diduduki "to be sat on, to be occupied"
- terduduk "to sink down, to come to sit"
- kedudukan "to be situated", "position"
- bersekedudukan "to cohabit"
- berkedudukan "to have position"
- tinggal to reside, to live
- meninggal to die, to pass away
- meninggalkan "to leave ", "to leave behind/abandon"
- ditinggalkan "to be left behind, to be abandoned"
- tertinggal "to be left behind"
- ketinggalan "to miss "
Descriptive stative verbs
There are no grammatical adjectives in Malay. Instead, stative verbs are used to describe various animate and inanimate objects, places and abstract concepts.| Malay | Gloss | English | Remarks |
| Hutan hijau | forest be-green | The forest is green | as in French la forêt verdoie |
| Kəreta yang merah | car that be-red | The red car | |
| Dia orang yang terkenal sekali | he/she person which be-famous | He/she is the most famous person | |
| Orang ini terkenal sekali | person this be-famous very | This person is very famous |
Negation
Four words are used for negation in Malay, namely tidak, bukan, jangan, and belum.- Tidak, colloquially shortened to tak, is used for the negation of verbs and "adjectives".
- Bukan is used in the negation of a noun.
| Malay | Gloss | English |
| Saya tidak tahu | I not know | I do not know |
| Ibu saya tidak senang | mother I not be-happy | My mother is not happy |
| Itu bukan anjing saya | that be-not dog I | That is not my dog |
- Jangan is used for negating imperatives or advising against certain actions. For example,
- Belum is used with the sense that something has not yet been accomplished or experienced. In this sense, belum can be used as a negative response to a question.
Function words
Word order
Stative verbs, demonstrative determiners, and possessive determiners follow the noun they modify.Malay does not have a grammatical subject in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an agent and an object, these are separated by the verb, with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.
Either the agent or object or both may be omitted. This is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:
;1) Adding a sense of politeness and respect to a statement or question
For example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:
| Ellipses of pronoun | Literal English | Idiomatic English |
| Boleh/bisa dibantu? | Can + to be helped? | Can help ? |
;2) Agent or object is unknown, not important, or understood from context
For example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:
| Ellipses of pronoun | Literal English | Idiomatic English |
| Rumah ini dibeli lima tahun yang lalu | House this + be purchased five year ago | The house 'was purchased' five years ago |
Ultimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.
Emphasis
Word order is frequently modified for focus or emphasis, with the focused word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause :- Saya pergi ke pasar kemarin "I went to the market yesterday" – neutral, or with focus on the subject.
- Kemarin saya pergi ke pasar "Yesterday I went to the market" – emphasis on yesterday.
- Ke pasar saya pergi, kemarin "To the market I went yesterday" – emphasis on where I went yesterday.
- Pergi ke pasar, saya, kemarin "To the market went I yesterday" – emphasis on the process of going to the market.