Languages of Canada
A multitude of languages are used in Canada. According to the 2016 census, English and French are the mother tongues of 56.0% and 21.4% of Canadians respectively. In total 86.2% of Canadians have working knowledge of English while 29.8% have a working knowledge of French. Under the Official Languages Act of 1969, both English and French have official federal status throughout Canada, in respect of all government services, including the courts, and all federal legislation is enacted bilingually. New Brunswick is the only Canadian province that has both English and French as its official languages to the same extent, with constitutional entrenchment. Quebec's official language is French, although, in that province, the Constitution requires that all legislation be enacted in both French and English, and court proceedings may be conducted in either language. Similar constitutional protections are in place in Manitoba.
Canada's Official Languages Commissioner has stated, "n the same way that race is at the core of what it means to be American and at the core of an American experience and class is at the core of British experience, I think that language is at the core of Canadian experience." To assist in more accurately monitoring the two official languages, Canada's census collects a number of demolinguistic descriptors not enumerated in the censuses of most other countries, including home language, mother tongue, first official language and language of work.
Canada's linguistic diversity extends beyond the two official languages. "In Canada, 4.7 million people reported speaking a language other than English or French most often at home and 1.9 million people reported speaking such a language on a regular basis as a second language. In all, 20.0% of Canada's population reported speaking a language other than English or French at home. For roughly 6.4 million people, the other language was an immigrant language, spoken most often or on a regular basis at home, alone or together with English or French whereas for more than 213,000 people, the other language was an Aboriginal language. Finally, the number of people reporting sign languages as the languages spoken at home was nearly 25,000 people."
Canada is also home to many indigenous languages. Taken together, these are spoken by less than one percent of the population. About 0.6% Canadians report an Indigenous language as their mother tongue.
Geographic distribution
The following table details the population of each province and territory, with summary national totals, by mother tongue as reported in the Canada 2016 Census.| Province/territory | Total population | English | % | French | % | Other languages | % | Official language |
| Ontario | 13,312,870 | 9,255,660 | 69.52% | 568,345 | 4.27% | 3,865,780 | 29.04% | English |
| Quebec | 8,066,555 | 718,985 | 8.91% | 6,377,080 | 79.06% | 1,173,345 | 14.54% | French |
| British Columbia | 4,598,415 | 3,271,425 | 71.14% | 71,705 | 1.56% | 1,360,815 | 29.59% | English |
| Alberta | 4,026,650 | 3,080,875 | 76.51% | 86,705 | 2.15% | 952,785 | 23.66% | English |
| Manitoba | 1,261,615 | 931,410 | 73.83% | 46,055 | 3.65% | 316,120 | 25.06% | English |
| Saskatchewan | 1,083,240 | 910,865 | 84.09% | 17,735 | 1.64% | 173,475 | 16.01% | English |
| Nova Scotia | 912,300 | 838,055 | 91.86% | 33,345 | 3.66% | 49,165 | 5.39% | English |
| New Brunswick | 736,280 | 481,690 | 65.42% | 238,865 | 32.44% | 25,165 | 3.42% | English, French |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 515,680 | 501,350 | 97.22% | 3,020 | 0.59% | 13,035 | 2.53% | English |
| Prince Edward Island | 141,020 | 128,975 | 91.46% | 5,395 | 3.83% | 7,670 | 5.44% | English |
| Northwest Territories | 41,380 | 32,545 | 78.65% | 1,365 | 3.30% | 8,295 | 20.05% | Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, Tłįchǫ |
| Yukon | 35,555 | 29,765 | 83.72% | 1,815 | 5.10% | 4,665 | 13.12% | English, French |
| Nunavut | 35,695 | 11,745 | 32.90% | 640 | 1.79% | 24,050 | 67.38% | Inuit Language, English, French |
| Canada | 34,767,255 | 20,193,340 | 58.08% | 7,452,075 | 21.43% | 7,974,375 | 22.94% | French, English |
Source: Statistics Canada, 2011 Census Population by language spoken most often and regularly at home, age groups, for Canada, provinces and territories..
The two official languages
Home language: rates of language use 1971–2006
The percentage of the population speaking English, French or both languages most often at home has declined since 1986; the decline has been greatest for French. The proportion of the population who speak neither English nor French in the home has increased. Geographically, this trend remains constant, as usage of English and French have declined in both English and French speaking regions of the country, but French has declined more rapidly both inside and outside of Quebec. The table below shows the percentage of the total Canadian population who speak Canada's official languages most often at home from 1971–2006. Note that there are nuances between "language most spoken at home", "mother-language" and "first official language": data is collected for all three, which together provide a more detailed and complete picture of language-use in Canada.Use of English
In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language. English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec and Nunavut, and most Canadians can speak English. While English is not the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% of Québécois can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively. Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.In 2011, 28.4 million Canadians had knowledge of English while only 21.6 million Canadians spoke it most often at home.
Use of French
In 2011, just over 7.1 million Canadians spoke French most often at home, this was a rise of 4.2%, although the proportion of people in Canada who spoke French "most often" at home fell slightly from 21.7% to 21.5%. Of these, about 6.1 million or 85% resided in Quebec. Outside Quebec, the largest French-speaking populations are found in New Brunswick and Ontario. Overall, 22% of people in Canada declare French to be their mother language, while one in three Canadians speak French and 70% are unilingual Anglophones. Smaller indigenous French-speaking communities exist in some other provinces. For example, a vestigial community exists on Newfoundland's Port au Port Peninsula; a remnant of the "French Shore" along the island's west coast.The percentage of the population who speak French both by mother tongue and home language has decreased over the past three decades. Whereas the number of those who speak English at home is higher than the number of people whose mother tongue is English, the opposite is true for Francophones. There are fewer people who speak French at home, than learned French after birth.
Ethnic diversity is growing in French Canada but still lags behind the English-speaking parts of the country. In 2006, 91.5% of Quebecers considered themselves to be of either "French" or "Canadian" origin. As a result of the growth in immigration, since the 1970s, from countries in which French is a widely used language, 3.4% of Quebecers indicated that they were of Haitian, Belgian, Swiss, Lebanese or Moroccan origin. Other groups of non-francophone immigrants have also assimilated into French over the generations. The Irish, who started arriving in large numbers in Quebec in the 1830s, were the first such group, which explains why it has been possible for Quebec to have had five premiers of Irish ethnic origin: John Jones Ross, Edmund James Flynn, Daniel Johnson Sr., Pierre-Marc Johnson, and Daniel Johnson Jr..
In 1991, due to linguistic assimilation of Francophones outside Quebec, over one million Canadians who claimed English as their mother tongue were of French ethnic origin.
Bilingualism and multilingualism versus English–French bilingualism
According to the 2011 census, 98.2% of Canadian residents have knowledge of one or both of the country's two official languages, Between 2006 and 2011, the number of persons who reported being able to conduct a conversation in both of Canada's official languages increased by nearly 350,000 to 5.8 million. The bilingualism rate of the Canadian population edged up from 17.4% in 2006 to 17.5% in 2011. This growth of English-French bilingualism in Canada was mainly due to the increased number of Quebecers who reported being able to conduct a conversation in English and French.
Bilingualism with regard to nonofficial languages also increased, most individuals speaking English plus an immigrant language such as Punjabi or Mandarin.
Geographic distribution of English–French bilingualism
| Year | # Bilingual Canadians | % Quebec | % Rest of Canada | Total # Canadians | % Quebec | % Rest of Canada |
| 1941 | 1,472,858 | 59.9% | 39.5% | 11,506,700 | 29.0% | 71.0% |
| 1951 | 1,727,400 | 60.1% | 39.9% | 14,009,400 | 28.9% | 71.1% |
| 1961 | 2,231,200 | 60.0% | 40.0% | 18,238,200 | 28.8% | 71.2% |
| 1971 | 2,900,150 | 57.4% | 42.6% | 21,568,310 | 27.9% | 72.1% |
| 1981 | 3,681,955 | 56.1% | 43.9% | 24,083,495 | 26.4% | 73.6% |
| 1986 | 4,056,155 | 54.9% | 45.1% | 25,022,005 | 25.8% | 74.2% |
| 1991 | 4,398,655 | 54.9% | 45.1% | 26,994,045 | 25.2% | 74.8% |
| 1996 | 4,841,320 | 55.0% | 45.0% | 28,528,120 | 24.2% | 75.8% |
| 2001 | 5,231,575 | 55.6% | 44.0% | 29,639,030 | 24.0% | 76.0% |
| 2006 | 5,448,850 | 55.4% | 44.6% | 31,241,030 | 23.8% | 76.2% |
| 2016 | 6,251,485 | 57.9% | 42.1% | 34,767,255 | 23.2% | 76.8% |
According to the 2011 census, 94.3% of Quebecers have knowledge of French, and 47.2% have knowledge of English. Bilingualism is largely limited to Quebec itself, and to a strip of territory sometimes referred to as the "bilingual belt", that stretches east from Quebec into northern New Brunswick and west into parts of Ottawa and northeastern Ontario. 85% of bilingual Canadians live within Quebec, Ontario and New Brunswick. A majority of all bilingual Canadians, are themselves Quebecers, and a high percentage of the bilingual population in the rest of Canada resides in close proximity to the Quebec border.
Similarly, the rate of bilingualism in Quebec has risen higher, and more quickly than in the rest of Canada. In Quebec, the rate of bilingualism has increased from 26% of the population being able to speak English and French in 1951 to 42.5% in 2011. As of 2011, in the rest of Canada the rate of bilingualism was 7.5%.
English–French bilingualism rates
English–French bilingualism is highest among members of local linguistic minorities. It is very uncommon for Canadians to be capable of speaking only the minority official language of their region. Only 1.5% of Canadians are able to speak only the minority official language, and of these most live in the bilingual belt.As the table below shows, rates of bilingualism are much higher among individuals who belong to the linguistic minority group for their region of Canada, than among members of the local linguistic majority. For example, within Quebec around 37% of bilingual Canadians are Francophones, whereas Francophones only represent 4.5% of the population outside of Quebec.
| Anglophones | Francophones | Allophones | |
| Quebec | 66.1% | 36.6% | 50.4% |
| Rest of Canada | 7.1% | 85.1% | 5.7% |
Official Language Minority Communities
French-Speaking Canadians from outside of Quebec and English-Speaking Quebecers are, together, the Official Language Minority Communities. These communities are:- = Anglo-Quebecers
- = Franco-Ontarians
- = Franco-Manitobans
- = Fransaskois
- = Franco-Albertans
- = Franco-Colombians
- = Franco-Yukonnais
- = Franco-Ténois
- = Franco-Nunavois
- = Franco-Terreneuviens
- ,, = Acadiens
- = Brayons
French outside Quebec
| Province/Territory | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 1996 | 2001 | 2006 | 2011 |
| New Brunswick | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.91 | 0.91 | 0.89 |
| Quebec | - | - | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.03 | 1.03 |
| Nunavut | - | - | - | - | 0.54 | 0.57 | 0.58 |
| Canada | - | - | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.97 |
| Ontario | 0.73 | 0.72 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.57 |
| Nova Scotia | 0.69 | 0.69 | 0.59 | 0.57 | 0.56 | 0.53 | 0.51 |
| Prince Edward Island | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.53 | 0.53 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.47 |
| Manitoba | 0.65 | 0.60 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 0.46 | 0.45 | 0.42 |
| Yukon | 0.30 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.46 | 0.46 | 0.49 | 0.57 |
| Northwest Territories | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.47 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 0.46 | 0.51 |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 0.63 | 0.72 | 0.47 | 0.42 | 0.42 | 0.36 | 0.46 |
| Alberta | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.36 |
| Saskatchewan | 0.50 | 0.41 | 0.33 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.26 |
| British Columbia | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.29 |
Non-official languages that are unique to Canada
Indigenous languages
Canada is home to a rich variety of indigenous languages that are spoken nowhere else. There are 12 Indigenous language groups in Canada, made up of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects, including many sign languages. Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term. Prior to colonization, multilingualism was common among indigenous bands, which were often temporary and nomadic. However, the reserve system has created more permanent stationary bands, which have generally selected only one of their various ancestral languages to try to preserve in the face of increasing Anglicization.Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun, known collectively as the Inuit Language, are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government. In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłįchǫ. Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.
According to the 2011 census, less than one percent of Canadians reported an Indigenous language as their mother tongue, and less than one percent of Canadians reported an Indigenous language as their home language.
Given the destruction of Indigenous state structures, academics usually classify Indigenous peoples of Canada by region into "culture areas", or by their Indigenous language family.
- Arctic cultural area –
- Subarctic culture area –
- Eastern Woodlands cultural area –
- Plains cultural area –
- Northwest Plateau cultural area –
- Northwest Coast cultural area –
| Indigenous languages | No. of speakers | Mother tongue | Home language |
| Cree | 99,950 | 78,855 | 47,190 |
| Inuktitut | 35,690 | 32,010 | 25,290 |
| Ojibwe | 32,460 | 11,115 | 11,115 |
| Montagnais-Naskapi | 11,815 | 10,970 | 9,720 |
| Dene Suline | 11,130 | 9,750 | 7,490 |
| Oji-Cree | 12,605 | 8,480 | 8,480 |
| Mi'kmaq | 8,750 | 7,365 | 3,985 |
| Siouan languages | 6,495 | 5,585 | 3,780 |
| Atikamekw | 5,645 | 5,245 | 4,745 |
| Blackfoot | 4,915 | 3,085 | 3,085 |
| Tłįchǫ or Dogrib | 2,645 | 2,015 | 1,110 |
| Algonquin | 2,685 | 1,920 | 385 |
| Carrier | 2,495 | 1,560 | 605 |
| Gitksan | 1,575 | 1,175 | 320 |
| Chilcotin | 1,400 | 1,070 | 435 |
| North Slave | 1,235 | 650 | 650 |
| South Slave | 2,315 | 600 | 600 |
| Malecite | 790 | 535 | 140 |
| Chipewyan | 770 | 525 | 125 |
| Inuinnaqtun | 580 | 370 | 70 |
| Kutchin-Gwich’in | 570 | 355 | 25 |
| Mohawk | 615 | 290 | 20 |
| Shuswap | 1,650 | 250 | 250 |
| Nisga'a | 1,090 | 250 | 250 |
| Tlingit | 175 | 0 | 0 |
| Atgangmuurngniq | 47 | Unknown | Unknown |
Source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts : Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa, 2007, pp. 2, 6, 10.
Glottolog 4.1 counted 9 independent indigenous language families and/or isolates in Canada.
- Eskimo-Aleut
- Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit
- Haida
- Tsimshian
- Wakashan
- Salishan
- Algic
- Beothuk
- Siouan
Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages
Michif
is a mixed language which evolved within the Prairie Métis community. It is based on elements of Cree, Ojibwa, Assiniboine, and French. Michif is today spoken by less than 1,000 individuals in Saskatchewan, Manitoba and North Dakota. At its peak, around 1900, Michif was understood by perhaps three times this number.Basque pidgin
is a pidgin that developed in the 16th century from Basque in coastal areas along the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Strait of Belle Isle as the result of contact between Basque whalers and local Algonquian peoples.Chinook Jargon
In British Columbia, Yukon and throughout the Pacific Northwest a pidgin language known as the Chinook Jargon emerged in the early 19th century which was a combination of Chinookan, Nootka, Chehalis, French and English, with a smattering of words from other languages including Hawaiian and Spanish. Certain words and expressions remain current in local use, such as skookum, tyee, and saltchuck, while a few have become part of worldwide English.Sign languages
Alongside the numerous and varied oral languages, Canada also boasts several sign languages. Currently, Canada is home to some five or more sign languages, belonging to four distinct language families, those being: French Sign Language language family, BANZSL family and two isolates.As with all sign languages around the world that developed naturally, these are natural, human languages distinct from any oral language. As such, American Sign Language is no more a derivation of English than Russian is, all being distinct languages from one another. Some languages present here were trade pidgins which were used first as a system of communication across national and linguistic boundaries of First Nations, however, they have since developed into mature languages as children learned them as a first language.
The sign languages of Canada share extremely limited rights within the country in large due to the general population's misinformation on the subject. Ontario is the only province or territory to formally make legal any sign language, enabling the use of American Sign Language, Quebec Sign Language and "First Nation Sign Language" in only the domains of education, legislation and judiciary proceedings. The only other language afforded any other rights is Inuiuuk which sees interpretation in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. There have been efforts to make LSQ an official language of Quebec, but all efforts have failed.
American Sign Language
The most spoken sign language in Canada, American Sign Language or ASL can be found across the country in mostly anglophone regions. The ties with Anglophone Canada are not due to ASL and English's similarity, they have to do with cultural similarities and linguistic history. As such, ASL can be found in areas where English is not the primary language, such as Montreal or Nunavut. ASL is part of the French Sign Language family, originating on the East Coast of the United States States from a mix of Langue des signes françaises and other local languages.Quebec Sign Language
Alongside ASL, Quebec Sign Language or LSQ is the second most spoken sign language in the country. Centred mainly around and within Quebec, LSQ can also be found in Ontario, New Brunswick and various other parts of the country, generally around francophone communities due to historical ties to the French language. Although approximately 10% of the population of Quebec is deaf or hard-of-hearing, it is estimated that only 50,000 to 60,000 children use LSQ as their native language. LSQ is part of the Francosign family with ASL. As such, both languages are mutually intelligible.Maritime Sign Language
is a BANZSL language. It was used as the language of education for Deaf populations in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island before ASL became available in the mid-20th century. It is still remembered by some elderly people but is moribund. The language, living alongside ASL, has produced a unique dialect of ASL in The Maritimes due to mixing of the languages. The exact number of speakers is unknown.Inuit Sign Language
, also known as Inuiuuk, is a critically endangered language with some 50 speakers remaining. It is a language isolate and has only be found by researchers in Nunavut, however, there are theories it extends across the Arctic Circle. Little is known about its history, but efforts are being made to document and revitalize the language.Hand Talk
Originally a trade pidgin, Plains Sign Talk, also known as Plains Standard or Prairie Sign Language, became a full language after children began to learn the language as a first language across many Nations. From "HANDS" and "TO TALK TO," Hand Talk was used as a lingua franca across linguistic and national boundaries across the continent and the language stretched across the provinces down through Mexico. As Plains Sign Talk was so widespread and was a spectrum of dialects and accents, it probably hosted several languages under its umbrella. One is potentially Navajo Sign Language which is in use by a sole Navajo clan.Plateau Sign Language
Another trade pidgin that may have become a separate language, Plateau Sign Language replaced Plains Sign Talk in the Columbia Plateau and surrounding regions of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It is now extinct.Canadian dialects of European languages
Canadian Gaelic
was spoken by many immigrants who settled in Glengarry County and the Maritimes — predominantly in New Brunswick's Restigouche River valley, central and southeastern Prince Edward Island, and across the whole of northern Nova Scotia — particularly Cape Breton. While the Canadian Gaelic dialect has mostly disappeared, regional pockets persist. These are mostly centred on families deeply committed to their Celtic traditions. Nova Scotia currently has 500–1,000 fluent speakers, mostly in northwestern Cape Breton. There have been attempts in Nova Scotia to institute Gaelic immersion on the model of French immersion. As well, formal post-secondary studies in Gaelic language and culture are available through St. Francis Xavier University, Saint Mary's University, and Cape Breton UniversityIn 1890, a private member's bill was tabled in the Canadian Senate, calling for Gaelic to be made Canada's third official language. However, the bill was defeated 42–7.
Franglais and Chiac
A portmanteau language which is said to combine English and French syntax, grammar and lexicons to form a unique interlanguage, is sometimes ascribed to mandatory basic French education in the Canadian anglophone school systems. While many Canadians are barely conversant in French they will often borrow French words into their sentences. Simple words and phrases like "c'est quoi ça?" or words like "arrête" can alternate with their English counterparts. This phenomenon is more common in the eastern half of the country where there is a greater density of Francophone populations. Franglais can also refer to the supposed degradation of the French language thanks to the overwhelming impact Canadian English has on the country's Francophone inhabitants, though many linguists would argue that while English vocabulary can be freely borrowed as a stylistic device, the grammar of French has been resistant to influences from English and the same conservatism holds true in Canadian English grammar, even in Quebec City.One interesting example of is Chiac, popularly a combination of Acadian French and Canadian English, but actually an unmistakable variety of French, which is native to the Maritimes.
Ottawa Valley Twang
is the accent, sometimes referred to as a dialect of English, that is spoken in the Ottawa Valley, in Ontario. The Ottawa Valley is considered to be a linguistic enclave within Ontario.Newfoundland English
The initial European settlers to Newfoundland were fishermen from the various coastal villages of the English West Country of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Bristol, and Wiltshire beginning in the 1500s. This set the basic speech patterns for those settlers who fanned out into isolated coves and bays along the island's of coastline to take advantage of the scattered off-shore fishing areas. Labrador, today the greater part of "Newfoundland", was then sparsely settled. The West Country dialects continued to be spoken in isolated coves and fjords of the island thus preserving varied dialects of what is today referred to as Newfoundland English.It was not until the 1700s that social disruptions in Ireland sent thousands of Irish from the southeastern counties of Waterford, Wexford, Kilkenny, and Cork and to the Avalon peninsula in the eastern part of Newfoundland where significant Irish influence on the Newfoundland dialects may still be heard.
Some of the Irish immigrants to Newfoundland were native speakers of Irish making Newfoundland the only place outside Europe to have its own Irish dialect. Newfoundland was also the only place outside Europe to have its own distinct name in Irish: Talamh an Éisc, which means 'land of the fish'. The Irish language is now extinct in Newfoundland.
After 400 years, much of the dialectal differences between the isolated settlements has leveled out beginning in the 20th century when faster boats, and improved road connections provided easier social contact. As well, influences from mainland North America began to affect the local dialects beginning during WWII when US and Canadian servicemen were stationed in Newfoundland and accelerating after Newfoundland became a Canadian province in 1949. Lack of an official orthography, publications in dialect, speaker attrition and official disinterest in promoting the language has been contributing factors towards a decline of speakers of the older, traditional Newfoundland English in the original settlements.
Welsh language
Some Welsh is found in Newfoundland. In part, this is as a result of Welsh settlement since the 17th century. Also, there was an influx of about 1,000 Patagonian Welsh migrated to Canada from Argentina after the 1982 Falklands War. Welsh-Argentines are fluent in Spanish as well as English and Welsh.Acadian French
is a unique form of Canadian French which incorporates not only distinctly Canadian phrases but also nautical terms, English loanwords, linguistic features found only in older forms of French as well as ones found in the Maritimer English dialect.Canadian Ukrainian
Canada is also home to Canadian Ukrainian, a distinct dialect of the Ukrainian language, spoken mostly in Western Canada by the descendants of first two waves of Ukrainian settlement in Canada who developed in a degree of isolation from their cousins in what was then Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, Poland, and the Soviet Union.Doukhobor Russian
Canada's Doukhobor community, especially in Grand Forks and Castlegar, British Columbia, has kept its distinct dialect of Russian. It has a lot in common with South Russian dialects, showing some common features with Ukrainian. This dialect's versions are becoming extinct in their home regions of Georgia and Russia where the Doukhobors have split into smaller groups.Bungee
The meagerly documented Bungi Creole is a dialect of English which evolved within the Prairie Métis community. It is influenced by Cree and Scots Gaelic. Bungee was spoken in the Red River area of Manitoba. In 1989, at the time of the only academic study ever undertaken on the language, only six speakers of Bungee were known to still be alive.Official bilingualism
Language policy of the federal government
English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament of Canada, and in all federal institutions.The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French. Immigrants who are applying for Canadian citizenship must normally be able to speak either English or French.
The principles of bilingualism in Canada are protected in sections 16 to 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms of 1982 which establishes that:
- French and English are equal to each other as federal official languages;
- Debate in Parliament may take place in either official language;
- Federal laws shall be printed in both official languages, with equal authority;
- Anyone may deal with any court established by Parliament, in either official language;
- Everyone has the right to receive services from the federal government in his or her choice of official language;
- Members of a minority language group of one of the official languages if learned and still understood or received primary school education in that language has the right to have their children receive a public education in their language, where numbers warrant.
Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories
Officially bilingual or multilingual: New Brunswick and the three territories
New Brunswick and Canada's three territories have all given official status to more than one language. In the case of New Brunswick, this means perfect equality. In the other cases, the recognition sometimes amounts to a formal recognition of official languages, but limited services in official languages other than English.The official languages are:
- New Brunswick: English and French. New Brunswick has been officially bilingual since the 1960s. The province's officially bilingual status has been entrenched in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since the 1980s.
- Northwest Territories: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, Slavey language and Tłįchǫ or Dogrib.
- Nunavut: English, Inuit Language and French.
- Yukon: English and French.
Officially French-only: Quebec
''De facto'' English only, or limited French-language services: the other eight provinces
Most provinces have laws that make either English or both English and French the official language of the legislature and the courts but may also have separate policies in regards to education and the bureaucracy.For example, in Alberta, English and French are both official languages of debate in the Legislative Assembly, but laws may be drafted solely in English and there is no legal requirement that they be translated into French. French can be used in some lower courts and education is offered in both languages, but the bureaucracy functions almost solely in English. Therefore, although Alberta is not officially an English-only province, English has a higher de facto status than French. Ontario and Manitoba are similar but allow for more services in French at the local level.