Isan language


Isan or Northeastern Thai is a group of Lao varieties spoken in the northern two-thirds of Isan in northeastern Thailand, as well as in adjacent portions of northern and eastern Thailand. It is the native language of the Isan people, spoken by 20 million or so people in Thailand, a third of the population of Thailand and 80 percent of all Lao speakers, making it the second largest language in Thailand. The language remains the primary language in 88 percent of households in Isan. It is commonly used as a second, third, or fourth language by the region's other linguistic minorities, such as Northern Khmer, Khorat Thai, Kuy, Nyah Kur, and other Tai or Austronesian-speaking peoples. The Isan language has unofficial status in Thailand and can be differentiated as a whole from the Lao language of Laos by the increasing use of Thai grammar, vocabulary, and neologisms. Code-switching is common, depending on the context or situation. Adoption of Thai neologisms has also further differentiated Isan from standard Lao.

Classification

Isan, as a sub-set of the Lao language, falls within the Lao-Phuthai languages which link it with closely related languages such as Phuthai and Tai Yo. Thai falls within the related grouping of Chiang Saen languages which are spoken to the west and northwest of Isan. The Lao-Phuthai and Chiang Saen languages, together with the Northwestern Tai languages—comprising the languages of the Chinese Dai, Burmese Thai Shan and Assamese Ahom—and Southern Thai comprise the Southwestern branch of Tai languages. The Tai languages include the languages of the Zhuang, which are split into the Northern and Central branches of Tai languages. The Tai languages form a major division within the Kra-Dai language family, linking it with several other languages of southern China, such as the Hlai and Be languages of Hainan and the Kra and Kam-Sui languages on the Main and in neighbouring regions of northern Vietnam.
Within Thailand, the speech of the Isan people is officially classified as a 'Northeastern' dialect of the Thai language and is referred to as such in most official and academic works concerning the language produced in Thailand. The use of 'Northeastern Thai' to refer to the language is re-enforced internationally with the descriptors in the ISO 639-3 and Glottolog language codes.
Outside of official and academic Thai contexts, Isan is usually classified as a particular sub-grouping of the Lao language, such as by speakers themselves and most linguists, or as a separate language closely related to Lao in light of its different orthography and Thai influences that distinguish it overall, such as its classification in Glottolog and Ethnologue.

Exonyms">Exonym and endonym">Exonyms

In official Thai contexts, the language is classified as a dialect of the Thai language. It is academically and officially referred to by one of the following terms: Phasa Thai Tawan Ok Chiang Neua, 'Northeastern Thai language' or Phasa Thai Thin Isan, 'Thai language of Isan region' or 'Thai dialect of Isan'. In more casual contexts, the language is known in Thai as either Phasa Thai Isan, 'Isan Thai language' or 'Isan language of Thailand' or the shorter form Phasa Isan, 'Isan language'.
The term 'Isan' was adopted in the late nineteenth century when the Khorat Plateau and the Lao peoples on the right bank were integrated into Siam, and the local princes were replaced with regional governors that were grouped into new administrative regions called monthon, with the appearance of Monthon Isan in 1900. This was later applied to the entire region and later, to remove references to the Lao people and culture, to the region, its people and its language. The term was resurrected from Isanapura, an old Khmer city whose empire once extended into Isan, as well as a Sanskrit term for 'northeast', i.e., of Bangkok, and the aspect of Phra Isuan or Shiva as guardian of the northeast direction.
To Lao speakers in Laos and most of the linguistic minorities of Isan, the language is simply known as Phasa Lao, 'Isan Lao language' or 'Lao language of Isan' or Phasa Thai Lao, mean 'Isan Thai language' or 'Isan language of Thailand' and 'Isan people's language', respectively. In other languages of the world, the language is known as 'Isan' or translations of 'Northeastern Thai'.

Endonyms">Exonym and endonym">Endonyms

Native Isan speakers refer to their language simply as Phasa Lao, 'Lao language', or Phasa Tai Lao, 'Lao people's language' or the homophonous Phasa Thai Lao, 'Isan Thai language' or 'Isan language of Thailand' are also gaining in use, and the younger generation have begun to adopt the term 'Isan' over the 'Lao' used traditionally by the older generations. The language is also affectionately or poetically known as Phasa Ban Hao, 'Our home language' or 'our village language'.

Geographical distribution

The Isan language is the primary language in the vast majority of households in the twenty province of Northeastern Thailand, also known as Phak Isan or the 'Isan region'. Most of the region falls within the Khorat Plateau, which is generally flat or slight undulating hills. The southern two-thirds of the region are drained by the important Mun and, its major tributary, the Chi rivers. The northern third, separated by the Phu Phan Mountains, is drained by the Loei and Songkhram, rivers. The preservation of the Lao language in the region was in part due to its isolation. The Phetchabun and Dong Phaya Yen to the west, the Sankhamphaeng to the southwest and the Dongrak mountains along its southern edge separated Isan from direct Siamese control and influence of the Thai language until the early twentieth century. To the north and east, the Mekong River forms the 'boundary' between the Isan language and the Lao language of Laos. The riparian boundary was always porous, and three bridges as well as countless ferries transport thousands of people back and forth to conduct trade, shop, make pilgrimages to religious shrines, visit relatives and friends or travel every day. Outside the official region or Isan, large numbers of Isan speakers can be found in adjacent regions of Uttaradit and Phitsanulok in Northern Thailand and northern Sa Kaeo and Prachinburi provinces in Eastern Thailand. In addition, a large number of Isan people now reside across Thailand, particularly Bangkok.
In the southern third of Isan, the Isan speakers are still the majority, but sizeable linguistic minorities include the 1.4 million speakers of the archaic and conservative Khmer Surin dialect and 400 thousand speakers of Kuy. Speakers of Khmer Surin comprise almost half the population of Surin and a quarter of the populations of Buriram and Sisaket. In Nakhon Ratchasima, there are 600 thousand speakers of Thai Khorat or 'Khorat Thai' and are believed to be the descendants of Siamese soldiers and administrators and local Khmer and Lao women and unlike Isan, is a clear Central Thai dialect in pronunciation and lexis, with a handful of local influences from local languages and unique developments. Nakhon Ratchasima was the only part of the northeastern region to come under Siamese direct rule prior to the early twentieth century.
Tribal Tai languages include the closely related Phuan with 200 thousand speakers, Phu Thai with 156 thousand and Tai Yo with 50 thousand speakers and are spread out throughout the region. In addition, there are several Austroasiatic languages spoken by small groups in small, isolated clusters such as Bru, Thavung and Nyah Kur, a remnant population of Mon peoples. In urban districts, there are also substantial numbers of people who speak Central Thai as a first language as well as smaller numbers of Vietnamese and Chinese dialect speakers. The predominance of the Isan language in Northeastern Thailand is in stark contrast to the situation in Laos. Although the language enjoys official status and appears in writing, Lao speakers only make up half the population and is found in narrow bands hugging the Thai border, large cities and riparian areas with the language absent in the mountainous areas that make up most of the country where Austroasiatic, tribal Kra-Dai and Sino-Tibetan languages predominate. This also means that a considerable number of Lao speakers in Laos speak it as a second language.

History

The Tai languages originated in what is currently known as central and southern China in an area stretching from Yunnan to Guangdong as well as Hainan and adjacent regions of northern Vietnam. Tai speakers arrived in Southeast Asia around 1000 CE, displacing or absorbing earlier peoples and setting up mueang on the peripheries of the Indianised kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer peoples. The Tai kingdoms of the Mekong Valley became tributaries of the Lan Xang mandala from 1354–1707. Influences on the Isan language include Sanskrit and Pali terms for Indian cultural, religious, scientific, and literary terms as well as the adoption of the Pallava alphabet as well as Mon-Khmer influences to the vocabulary.
Lan Xang split into the Kingdom of Vientiane, the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang, and the Kingdom of Champasak, but these became vassals of the Thai state. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, several deportations of Lao peoples from the densely populated west bank of the Mekong to the hinterlands of Isan were undertaken by the Thai armies, especially after the revolt of Anouvong in 1828, when Vientiane was looted and depopulated. This weakened the Lao kingdoms as the population was shifted to the kingdoms in Isan and small pockets of western and north-central Thailand, under greater Thai control.

Development of Isan

Isan speakers became politically separated from other Lao speakers after the Franco-Siamese War of 1893 would lead Siam to cede all of the territories east of the Mekong to France, which subsequently established the French Protectorate of Laos. In 1904, Sainyabuli and Champasak Provinces were ceded to France, leading to the current borders between Thailand and Laos. A 25 km demilitarised zone west of the river banks allowed for easy crossings, and Isan remained largely neglected for some time. Rebellions against Siamese and French incursions into the region included the Holy Man's Rebellion, led by self-proclaimed holy men. The Lao people also joined in the rebellion, but was crushed by Thai troops in Isan. At first, Isan was administered by Lao local rulers subject to the Siamese Court under the monthon system of administration, but this was abolished in 1933, bringing Isan under the direct control of Bangkok.

Thaification

Heavy-handed nationalist policies were adopted in 1933 with the end of the absolute monarchy in Thailand. Many were instituted during the premiership of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram. Although Lao languages were banned from education in 1871, a new public education and new schools were built throughout Isan, and only Thai was to be used by government and media. References to Lao people were erased and propagation of Thai nationalism was instilled in the populace. The language was renamed "Northeastern Thai".
Discrimination against the Isan language and its speakers was commonplace, especially when large numbers of Isan people began arriving in Bangkok in the latter half of the 20th century, permanently or for seasonal work. Although this blatant discrimination is rarer these days, most of these nationalistic Thaification policies remain in effect.

Post-war period to present

Resistance to Thai hegemony continued. During the course of World War II and afterwards, the Free Thai Movement bases in Isan made links with the Lao Issara movement. After the implementation of Thaification policies, many prominent Isan politicians were assassinated, and some Isan people moved to Laos. The Communist Party of Thailand led insurrections during the 1960s and 1980s, supported by the communist Pathet Lao and some factions of the Isan populace. Integration continued, as highways and other infrastructure were built to link Isan with the rest of Thailand. Due to population pressures and unreliable monsoons of the region, Isan people began migrating to Bangkok for employment. Isan speakers began to shift to the Thai language, and the language itself is absorbing larger amounts of Thai vocabulary. Universities such as Mahasarakham and Khon Kaen are now offering classes on Isan language, culture, and literature. Attitudes towards regional cultures have relaxed and the language continues to be spoken, but Thai influences in grammar and vocabulary continue to increase.

Legal status

Lao only enjoys official status in Laos. In Thailand, the local Lao dialects are officially classed as a dialect of the Thai language, and it is absent in most public and official domains. However, Thai has failed to supplant Lao as the mother tongue for the majority of Isan households. Lao features of the language have been stabilised by the shared history and mythology, mor lam folk music still sung in Lao, and a steady flow of Lao immigrants, day-labourers, traders, and growing cross-border trade.

Language Status

The Lao language in Thailand is classified by Ethnologue as a "de facto language of provincial identity" which is defined as a language that "is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business." It continues to be an important regional language for the ethnic Lao and other minorities that live beside them, but it does not have any official status in Thailand. Although the population of Lao speakers is much smaller in Laos, the language there enjoys official status, and it is the primary language of government, business, education, and inter-ethnic communication. Even with close proximity to Laos, Isan speakers must master Thai and very few Isan people can read the Lao script due to lack of exposure.

Written language usage and vitality

American linguist Joshua Fishman developed the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale to categorise the various stages of language death. The expanded GIDS is still used to explain the status of a language on the continuum of language death. The written language for Isan—both the secular Tai Noy script and the religious Tua Tham script—are currently at Stage IX which is described as a "language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency." Today, only a handful of monks in charge of the ancient temple libraries in Isan, some local professors, and a few experts are able to read and write the language.

Spoken language usage and vitality

The spoken language is currently at Stage VIA, or "vigorous", on the EGIDS scale, which is defined by Ethnologue as a language that is used for "face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable". According to data from 1983, 88 percent of Isan households were predominantly Isan speaking, with 11 percent using both Thai and Isan at home, and only one percent using exclusively Thai. Although this sounds promising for the continued future of the Isan language, there are many signs indicating that the language could reach Stage VIB, or "threatened", which is defined as a "language used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users". As a strong command of Thai is necessary for advancement in most government, academic, and professional realms, and in order to work in areas like Bangkok where Isan is not the local language. The negative perception of the language, even among native speakers, often causes speakers to limit use of the language unless they are in the company of other Isan speakers. Parents may view the Isan language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must be able to speak central Thai proficiently to advance in academia or other career paths besides agriculture. Although there are large numbers of Isan speakers, the language is at risk from Thai relexification. There is also a generational gap, with older speakers using more normative Lao features, whereas the youth are using a very "Thaified" version of Isan or switching to Thai generally. Many academics and Isan speakers are worried that the language may decline unless it can be promoted beyond its status as a de facto regional language and its written script rejuvenated.

Thai-influenced language shift

The greatest influence on the Isan language comes from Thai. This is because Isan has been the target of official assimilation policies aimed to erase the culture and language and force nationalism based around the Thai monarchy and Central Thai culture. Thai spoken and written language is the only language of television, most radio stations, signage, government, courts, hospitals, literature, magazines, social media, movies, schools and mandatory for job placement and advancement, participating in wider society, education and social rise. Through Thai, Isan has also absorbed influences from Chinese, mainly the Teochew dialect, as well as English. Thai has also begun to displace the language of city life in the provincial capitals and major market towns in the region.
Language shift is definitely beginning to take hold. There does exist a considerable gap in language use between current university age students and their parents or grandparents, who continue to speak relatively traditional forms of the language. Many Isan people growing up in Bangkok often are unfamiliar with the language, and a larger number of children, especially in Isan's major cities, are growing up speaking only Thai, as parents in these areas often refuse to transmit the language. Those young people who do speak the language often heavily code-switch and rely on Thai vocabulary. It is uncertain if any of these students are able to revert to a 'proper' Isan, as the language still suffers the stigma of a rural, backward language of people who could serve as a fifth column of Lao efforts to dominate the region.
Isan essentially exists in a diglossia, with the high language of Central Thai used in most higher spheres and the low language, Isan, used in the villages and with friends and relatives. Formal, academic and pop culture often demand knowledge of Thai as, as few Isan people can read old texts or modern Lao ones and Isan does not exist in these spheres. The language in its older form is best preserved in the poor, rural areas of Isan, many of which are far from market towns and barely accessible by roads despite improvements in integration. Many Isan academics that study the language lament the forced Thaification of their language. Wajuppa Tossa, a Thai professor who translated many of the traditional Isan stories directly from the palm-leaf manuscripts written in Tai Noy noted that she was unable to decipher the meaning of a handful of terms, some due to language change, but many due to the gradual replacement of Lao vocabulary and because, as she was educated in Thai, could not understand some of the formal and poetic belles-lettres, many of which are still current in Lao.

Code-switching

Isan speakers have the choice of choosing a language that is either Thai or Lao or somewhere in between, with code-switching between languages a prominent feature of typical Isan speech. For example, if a man asks his younger brother, 'What is that man drinking?', he may receive one of several following responses that all mean, 'Older brother, the man over there drinks tea':, ranging from one diglossic extreme, i.e., using only Standard Thai to the other, using only Lao vocabulary which is often distinct from Thai.
Standard Thai
Standard Thai, but switching over to Isan tones and use of the polite particle เด้อ, doe and a 'Lao-ised' pronunciation of the Thai male polite particle ครับ, khrap.
Mainly Isan vocabulary, but with Thai pronunciation and tones for ผู้ชาย, phuchai, and intrusion of the Thai male polite particle after the Isan one.
Only using shared Lao vocabulary and pronunciation

Perceptions

Isan has always been Thailand's poorest, less educated and most rural region, with the vast majority of the local population engaged in traditional wet-rice cultivation and animal husbandry despite the region's infertile, salty soils and unpredictable rains making the area prone to either drought or severe floods. Agriculture employs over half the population, with another quarter of the population engaged in it part-time. Although it contains one-third of the total population of Thailand, the region only generates 10.9 per cent of the country's GDP. As a result, millions of Isan people leave during the dry season to find temporary work in menial jobs whilst others emigrate for longer terms but still maintain permanent residences in the region, and Isan people can typically found as taxi drivers, porters, factory workers, construction workers, restaurant workers, salon assistants, sex workers, janitors and other professions that require few skills or education
When Thai people can understand words and phrases, the language sounds very polite, for Isan tends to use pronouns more frequently and uses vocabulary that often has cognates in Thai formal or literary language, especially frozen expressions, but otherwise, many words in spoken Lao and Isan are cognates of terms that are no longer very polite in spoken Thai. For example, Thai has two words for 'wife', mia and phanraya. In Thai, mia is used by men but it is impolite in mixed company and Thai women generally object to the term being used, as it is often used in many Thai expressions and insults that are negative towards women, and phanraya is the everyday, polite form used in general conversation. Lao mia and Isan,, unlike Thai, did not evolve to have a negative connotation and continues as the common word for 'wife' in vulgar, casual and formal circumstances whereas Lao phanragna and Isan, sounds as 'bookish' as referring to someone's wife as a 'consort'. As there is little advantage to speaking Isan and by virtue of its negative perception, even amongst speakers, the language shift goes unabated.

Continued survival

The Lao folk music molam has gained in popularity in Thailand, with many Isan singing artists featured during off-peak hours on Thai national television. Crown Princess Sirindhorn was the patron of the 2003 "Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition" and Isan-language variants of the central Thai luk thung music are accepted in national youth competitions. Within Isan, many students participate in mo lam clubs where they learn the music. Universities are also now offering classes about Isan language, culture, former alphabets, and literature. The Isan people are also exposed to a steady trickle of Laotian immigrants, seasonal immigrants, students as daily visitors, merchants, traders, and fishers. Isan is also connected with Laos by three bridges, which link the cities of Nong Khai-Vientiane, Mukdahan-Savannakhét, and Nakhon Phanom-Thakhek along the Thai-Lao border, respectively. The language will likely continue to have Thai relexification and gradual language shift as possible threats to its existence.

Phonology

Consonants

Initials

Isan shares its original Lao consonant inventory, which compared to Thai, means it lacks /r/ and /tɕʰ/ and the common allophone of the latter, /ʃ/. However, it also includes the sounds /ɲ/ and /ʋ/, although /ʋ/ is sometimes /w/ depending on the speaker and region.

Clusters

There are two relatively common consonant clusters:
There are also several other, less frequent clusters recorded, though apparently in the process of being lost:
All plosive sounds are unreleased. Hence, final,, and sounds are pronounced as,, and respectively.
LabialAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottal
Nasal
ม
ญ,ณ,น,ร,ล,ฬ
ง
Stop
บ,ป,พ,ฟ,ภ
จ,ช,ซ,ฌ,ฎ,ฏ,ฐ,ฑ,
ฒ,ด,ต,ถ,ท,ธ,ศ,ษ,ส
ก,ข,ค,ฆ		*
Approximant
ว
ย

Vowels

The vowels of the Isan language are similar to those of Central Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in the Thai alphabet, where a dash indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.
The vowels each exist in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming unrelated words in Isan, but usually transliterated the same: เขา means "he/she", while ขาว means "white".
The long-short pairs are as follows:
The basic vowels can be combined into diphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:
Additionally, there are three triphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:
Thai scriptIPA
เ–ียว*
–วย*
เ–ือย*

Dialects

Although as a whole, the Isan dialects are grouped separately from Lao dialects in Laos by influences from the Thai language, dialectal isoglosses mirror the population movements from Lao regions. These regional varieties vary in tone quality and distribution and a small number of lexical items, but all are mutually intelligible. Up to fourteen regional variations can be found within Isan, but they can be grouped into five principal dialect areas:
DialectLao ProvincesThai Provinces
Vientiane Lao Vientiane, Vientiane Prefecture, BolikhamxaiNong Bua Lamphu, Chaiyaphum, and parts of Nong Khai, Yasothon, Khon Kaen, and Udon Thani.
Northern Lao Louang Phrabang, Xaignabouli, Oudômxai, Phôngsaly, and Louang Namtha.Loei and parts of Udon Thani, Khon Kaen, Phitsanulok, and Uttaradit.
Northeastern Lao/Tai Phuan Xiangkhouang and Houaphane.Parts of Sakon Nakhon, Udon Thani.*2
Central Lao Savannakhét and Khammouane.Nakhon Phanom, Mukdahan and parts of Sakon Nakhon, Nong Khai and Bueng Kan.
Southern Lao Champasak, Saravane, Xékong, and Attapeu.Ubon Ratchathani, Amnat Charoen, and parts of Yasothorn, Buriram, Si Sa Ket, Surin, Nakhon Ratchasima and portions of Sa Kaew, Chanthaburi
Western Lao Not spoken in Laos.Kalasin, Maha Sarakham, Roi Et and portions of Phetchabun.

Vientiane Lao dialect

The Vientiane dialect is spoken in northern Isan, in areas long-settled by Tai peoples from the early days of Lan Xang, such as Nong Bua Lamphu—once the seat of the ouparat of Lan Xang and later the Kingdom of Vientiane, Udon Thani, Chaiyaphum, Nong Khai and much of Loei provinces. The Tai Wiang, or 'Vientiane people' of these areas were boosted by Siamese deportations of people from the left bank during the destruction of Vientiane in 1827 after the failed uprising of its last king, Chao Anouvong. The Tai Wiang are also found in Khon Kaen and the Yasothon, where many districts traditionally speak Vientiane-like varieties. There are also a very small number of villages of Vientiane Lao speakers located in other regions of the Northeast.
Standard Lao is based on the speech of the old families of Vientiane as heard on television and broadcasts of government news media on radio. The dialect also extends over all Vientiane Province which surrounds the capital, as well as portions of Xaisômboun and Bolikhamxai provinces. Many of the Lao-speaking regions of these areas were previously part of the Vientiane Province until administrative reforms led to their creation. As the city of Nong Khai, and much of the province, lies south on the opposite bank from Vientiane and is connected by bridge and several ferry services, the Isan speech of its inhabitants is almost indistinguishable from the speech of the Laotian capital.
Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
HighRisingMiddleLow-Falling Low-FallingMid-Rising
MiddleLow-RisingMiddleHigh-Falling High-FallingMid-Rising
LowHigh-RisingMiddleHigh-FallingHigh-FallingMiddle (High Middle

Northern Lao (Louang Phrabang) dialect

Northern Lao is not common is Isan, where it is found in western Loei and pockets of Udon Thani surrounded by Vientiane Lao speakers, but it is the predominate form of the Isan language spoken in the portions of Northern Thailand, such as the eastern portions of Uttaradit and Phitsanulok provinces that border Xaignabouli Province, Laos and Loei. In Laos, the dialect includes the traditional speech of the city of Louang Phrabang and the surrounding province and Xaignabouli, where Lao speakers predominate. In the other northern provinces of Oudômxai, Houaphan, Louang Namtha and Phôngsali, native Lao speakers are a small minority in the major market towns but Northern Lao, highly influenced by the local languages, is spoken as the lingua franca between ethnic groups. The dialect was once an important prestige language of Laos, since the capital was the royal seat of Lan Xang for much of its history, and even under French rule and the capital long since moved to Vientiane, the Lao royal family continued to rule and deliver royal speeches in a refined form of the dialect until the brutal civil war that ousted it in 1975.
Northern Lao is quite distinct from the other Lao dialects, even though it is spoken just to the north of the Vientiane Lao dialect region. In vocabulary and intonation, it is quite similar to Tai Lanna language, due to geographic proximity, the brief dynastic union of Lanna and Lan Xang and the emigration of thousands of people from Lanna to Louang Phrabang after the former capitulated to Burmese invasions in 1551. Because of this, Northern Lao is classified by Ethnologue as a Chiang Saen language like Tai Lanna. The most striking difference between Northern Lao is the differentiation of two vowels 'ໄ◌' and 'ໃ◌', analogous to Thai 'ไ◌' and 'ใ◌' in cognates. In Standard Thai, Standard Lao and all other Lao dialects, these vowels are both /aj/, but Northern Lao distinguishes the latter, 'ໃ◌', as /aɯ/, although in Houaphan, the vowel is /əː/ as it is in Phuan. This distinction is preserved from Proto-Tai, where 'ໃ◌' and Thai 'ใ◌' correspond to Proto-Tai * and 'ໃ◌' and Thai 'ไ◌' correspond to Proto-Tai *, respectively.
There are also a few minor differences in vocabulary that distinguish the speech of people of northern Laos, much of which is retained in the small areas of Isan where it is also spoken, such as western Loei.
Vientiane Lao lin
Vientiane Lao ling
Vientiane Lao ho
The dialect is also unique for only having five tones, although some speakers in the mountainous areas may use more tones due to influences from their respective languages. Due to the distinctive high pitch high-falling tone on words live syllables starting with low-class consonants is considered to sound 'softer' or 'lighter' to Lao speakers of other dialects.
Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
HighMid-Falling RisingMiddleHigh-Falling High-FallingMid-Rising
MiddleLow-RisingMiddleMid-Rising High-FallingMid-Rising
LowLow-RisingMiddleMid-RisingMid-RisingMiddle

Northeastern Lao dialect (Tai Phouan)

Northeastern Lao or Phuan and is a associated with a distinct tribal Tai people. In Thailand, they are generally found in numerous villages of Sakon Nakhon and Udon Thani, and smaller concentrations in Bueng Kan, Nong Khai and Loei, but there are over two dozen Phuan villages scattered across northern and central Thailand where the Phuan were brought to develop the land, forced to dig canals and construct roads or defend the Siamese capital but were kept apart and forced to maintain their traditional black clothing and were thus able to preserve their language and identity. In Laos, the homeland of the Phuan people is the lowland areas of Xingkhouang and some districts of Houaphan. As a northern-type language, the speech of Phuan communities is quite distinct from the neighbouring Isan villages where central and southern varieties predominate. Phuan preserves the distinction of 'ໃ◌' and Thai 'ใ◌', which correspond to Proto-Tai * and 'ໃ◌' and Thai 'ไ◌', which correspond to Proto-Tai *, respectively. The former is realized as /əː/ and the latter as /aj/, similar to the Houaphan accent of the Northern Lao dialect. Due to a tonal distribution more akin to Northern Lao and influences of Tai languages spoken in northern Laos, Phuan is classified as Chiang Saen language in Ethnologue.
Due to the settlement of Phuan peoples outside of their original homeland of what is now Xiangkhouang Province of Laos, the tones of Phuan vary markedly between settlements due to drift because of isolation and influence of contact languages. However, there are a few traits that are shared between most Phuan varieties. Almost all Phuan speech have a distinct tone for words of low-class consonants marked with the mai ek that also appears in low-class consonant syllables with long vowels. Most Lao dialects pronounce all words with the same tone, regardless of consonant class, when marked with mai ek. Most Phuan dialects have six tones like most other Lao dialects, although some varieties spoken in Central Thailand and Northern Laos only have five.
Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
HighLow-RisingLowMiddle LowMid-Rising
MiddleMid-RisingLowHigh-FallingLowMid-Rising
LowMid-RisingMid-FallingHigh-FallingMid-FallingLow

Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
HighHigh-Falling-RisingHigh-FallingHigh-RisingHigh-FallingHigh-Rising
MiddleMiddleHigh-FallingHigh-RisingHigh-FallingHigh-Rising
LowMiddleHigh-RisingLow-FallingHigh-RisingHigh-Rising

Central Lao

The central Lao dialect groupings predominate in the Lao provinces of Savannakhét and Khammouane, and the Thai province of Mukdahan and other regions settled by speakers from these regions.
Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
HighRisingMiddleLow-FallingRisingLow-Falling
MiddleHigh-FallingMiddleRising-FallingRisingLow-Falling
LowHigh-FallingMiddleRising-FallingHigh-FallingMiddle

Southern Lao

Southern Lao is the primary dialect of Champassak, most of the southern portions of Laos, portions of Thailand once under its control, such as Ubon Rachathani, and much of southern Isan, as well as small pockets in Steung Treng Province in Cambodia.
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Western Lao

Western Lao does not occur in Laos, but can be found in Kalasin, Maha Sarakham, and Roi Et Provinces.
Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
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Related languages

Tai Noi alphabet

The original writing system was the Akson Tai Noi, 'Little Tai alphabet' or To Lao, which in contemporary Isan and Lao would be Tua Lao or 'Original Lao script.' The contemporary Lao script is a direct descendant and has preserved the basic letter shapes. The similarity between the modern Thai alphabet and the old and new Lao alphabets is because both scripts derived from a common ancestral Tai script of what is now northern Thailand which was an adaptation of the Khmer script, rounded by the influence of the Mon script, all of which are descendants of the Pallava script of southern India.
The Tai Noi script was the secular script used for personal letters, record keeping, signage, songs, poems, stories, recipes, medical texts and religious literature aimed at the laity. The earliest evidence of the script in what is now Thailand is an inscription at Prathat Si Bunrueang in Nong Bua Lamphu dated to 1510, and the last epigraphic evidence is dated to 1840 AD, although large numbers of texts were destroyed or did not survive the heat and humidity. The use of the script was banned in 1871 by royal decree, followed by reforms that imposed Thai as the administrative language of the region in 1898, but these edicts had little impact as education was done informally by village monks. The written language survived to some degree until the imposition of the radical Thaification policies of the 1930s, as the Central Thai culture was elevated as the national standard and all expressions of regional and minority culture were brutally suppressed. Many documents were confiscated and burned, religious literature was replaced by royally sanctioned Thai versions and schools, where only the Thai spoken and written language was used, were built in the region. As a result, only a handful of people, such as academic experts, monks that maintain the temple libraries and some elderly people of advanced age are familiar with and can read material written in Tai Noi script. This has led to Isan being mainly a spoken language, and when it is written, if at all, it is written in the Thai script and spelling conventions that distance it from its Lao origins.
Signage in Isan written in the Tai Noi script was installed throughout Khon Kaen University in 2013. Students were surveyed after the signs were put up, and most had a favorable reaction to the signage, as over 73 per cent had no knowledge of a previous writing system prior to the forced adoption of the Thai language and alphabet. Lack of a writing system has been cited as a reason for the lack of prestige speakers have for the language, disassociation from their history and culture and for the constant inroads and influence of the Thai language. Revival of the written language, however, is hampered by lack of support. Despite the easement of restrictions and prejudice against Isan people and their language, the Thaification policies that suppressed the written language remain the law of the land in Thailand today. Although contemporary Lao people from Laos can read Tai Noi material with only a little difficulty, Isan speakers are generally unfamiliar with the Lao script due to lack of exposure.

Thai alphabet

The ban on all but the Thai language and alphabet in the classroom and official, public spheres rendered Isan speakers unable to read material written in the Lao language from Laos and forced them into a primarily oral culture, with all writing done in Thai with the Thai script. Eventually, Isan people developed an ad hoc system of transcribing their spoken language, using Thai spelling for cognate words, even those with consonant clusters that do not exist in Isan or Lao, but the core vocabulary of traditional Lao vocabulary is spelled analogously to what is used in Laos. To represent the different tones, as Lao dialects generally have six tones to the five of Thai, some writers use the rare tone marks written over 'ก'—'ก๋' and 'ก๊'—to better transcribe them. A more universal practice is the substitution of the letter 'ฮ' /h/ where the expected spelling would be 'ร' /r/ as many words in Isan have /h/ where the cognate term in Thai is /r/. This is similar to the Lao letter 'ຮ.' For example, the Proto-Tai word *rɤːn became the formal เรือน but the commonplace word เฮือน and ເຮືອນ, both pronounced. Similarly, traditionally Isan lacks the sound /tɕʰ/ and cognate words with Thai have /s/ instead, so writers often substitute 'ซ' for the Thai 'ช'. For example, Proto-Thai **ɟaːŋ became ช้าง and ซ้าง and ຊ້າງ, both pronounced. The substitution of the other Thai letters that represent /tɕʰ/ is unknown with 'ส', although the Lao equivalent 'ສ' is used in Laos, such as ฉบับ vs. ສະບັບ. Isan speakers in this case use Thai spelling and Lao pronunciation.
The use of the Thai alphabet and Thai spelling of cognate words provides a few challenges for accurately transcribing the Isan language. For instance, Isan and Lao have preserved a phonemic distinction between /j/ and /ɲ/, which in Lao is rendered separately with the letters 'ຢ' and 'ຍ', respectively. This differentiates ຢາ, 'medicine,' and the similarly sounding ຍ່າ, 'paternal grandmother', whereas Isan speakers use 'ย' in both ยา and ย่า, respectively. The use of the Thai script and spelling rules, in terms of visual processing, contributes to the low prestige of the language. Since written in Thai script, the language looks fairly intelligible to Thai speakers even if the spoken language is different enough to cause misunderstandings. Because of these great phonological differences in tone, substitution of phonemes and simplification of consonant clusters, it further serves to make Isan to appear to be an inferior, substandard version of Thai and not its own unique variety. Nevertheless, this system is common in personal letters, social media and electronic communications between Isan speakers and is used to transcribe the lyrics of songs in the language, particularly the traditional Lao folk music molam'.
Comparison of Thai and Lao scripts
Isan
  • หมู่ชาวเมืองมา เบื้องขวานั่งส่ายล่าย เบื้องซ้ายนั่งเป็นแถว ยอพาขวัญไม้จันทน์เพริดแพร้ว ขวัญมาแล้ว มาสู่คีงกลม
  • เห็นสวนดอกไม้บิดาปลูกไว้ตั้งแต่ใดมา เวลาหงอยเหงา ยังช่วยบรรเทาให้หายโศกา
RTGS
  • mu sao meuang ma, beuang khwa nang sailai, beuang sai nang pen thaew, yo pha khwan mai chan phroedphraew, khwan ma laew, ma su khing klom
  • hen suan dokmai bida pluk wai tang tae dai ma, wela ngoi ngao yang chuai banthao hai hai soka
    • Pronunciation
  • /mùː saːu mɯaŋ maː bɯ̂aŋ kʰwǎː nâŋ sàːj lâːj bɯ̂aŋ sáːj nâŋ pen thɛ̌ːw jɔ pʰaː kʰwăn máj tɕan pʰrɤ̂ːt pʰrɛ́ːw kʰwăn maː lɛ́ːw maː sùː kʰiːŋ klom/
  • /hĕn sŭan dɔ`k máj bì daː plùːk wáj tâŋ tɛ`ː daj ma wɛ laː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo janŋ tɕʰûaj ban tʰao hâj hăːj sŏː kaː/
    • Lao
  • ຫມູ່ຊາວເມືອງມາ ເບຶ້ອງຂວານັ່ງສ່າຍລ່າຍ ເບຶ້ອງຊ້າຍນັ່ງເປັນແຖວ ຍໍພາຂວັນໄມ້ຈັນເພີດແພວ ຂວັນມາແລ້ວ ມາສູ່ຄີງກົມ
    • ໝູ່ຊາວເມືອງມາ ເບຶ້ອງຂວານັ່ງສ່າຽລ່າຽ ເບຶ້ອງຊ້າຽນັ່ງເປັນແຖວ ຍໍພາຂວັນໄມ້ຈັນທ໌ເພີດແພວ ຂວັນມາແລ້ວ ມາສູ່ຄີງກົມ
    • ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ ບິດາປູກໄວ້ ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງອຍເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ອຍບັນເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຍໂສກາ
    ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ບິດາປຼູກໄວ້ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງຽເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ຽບັຣເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຽໂສກາ
    BGN/PCGN
    • Mou xao muang ma, buang khoa nang sailay, bung xay nang pén thèo, gno pha khoan mai chan phuetphèo, khoan ma lèo ma sou khing kôm
    • Hén souan dokmai bida pouk vai tang tè dai ma. Véla ngoi ngao, gnang souay banthao hai hai sôka
    Pronunciation
  • /mūː sáːu mɨ́aːŋ máː, bɨ̏aːŋ kʰuːă nāŋ sâːj lāːj, bɨ̏aːŋ sȃːj nāŋ pen tʰɛ̆ːw ɲɔ́ː pʰáː kʰuːăn mȃj tɕan pʰ'ɤ̂t pʰ'ɛ́ːw kʰuːăn máː lɛ̑ːw maː sūː kʰíːŋ kom/
  • /hĕn sŭːan dɔ̏ːk mâj bí daː pȕːk vȃj tȃŋ tɛ̄ː daj máː vɛ´ láː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo ɲáŋ sɔ̄ːj ban tʰáo hȁj hăːj sŏː kaː/

    • Tai Tham

    The Tai Tham was historically known in the Lao-speaking world as tua tham, 'dharma letters', due to their use primarily as the written language of Buddhist monks. The script was introduced into what is now Laos and Isan from Lan Na during the reign of King Setthathirath, who was crowned king of Lan Na and later became king of Lan Xang—although a prince of the latter—bringing both mandalas in personal union from 1546 until 1551. During this brief period, the large volumes of literature from the libraries in Chiengmai were either taken or copied and brought to the Lao people.
    Evidence of its use in what is now Isan include two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at Wat Tham Suwannakuha in Nong Bua Lamphu, dated to 1564, and another from Wat Mahaphon in Maha Sarakham from the same period. The script was only used by the very religious or taught to the monks, as many sacred Pali sutras were preserved on palm-leaf manuscripts. The script was generally not known to the laity, who would have instead used the Tai Noy script for most day-to-day things, although some, such as those who had joined the monastery for various lengths of time, as is the custom among males in various Therevada Buddhist Tai cultures. Despite its use as the religious language, often used to transcribe Pali texts, it was also used to write literature aimed at other monks and religious scholars, as well as notes and marginalia, in the Lao language.
    Although Tua Tham is an abugida, spelling words according to the same general rules as Thai and Lao, the alphabet is unique in having a very different design, featuring round shapes, several ligatures, special vowels only used at the start of words, several consonants that have variant forms when at the end of a syllable and the habit of stacking letters, with the second letter in a sequence, where permissible, is written under the first. The Thai and Tai Noy/Lao scripts were derived from that of the Khmer, and are thus more sharply angled. Both the Mon and Khmer scripts share common descent from Brahmi via contacts with southern Indian traders, soldiers and religious leaders that used a Pallava script.
    As a result of its general suppression, Isan speakers use Thai-language and Thai-alphabet materials, although many monks in Isan offer advice or explanations in the Isan language, many of which are available for recordings, but transcriptions of these are now taken using the Thai alphabet and not Tai Noy or Tua Tham. Like Tai Noy, only a handful of experts and some older monks in charge of maintaining temple libraries are able to read the old texts. Although no longer in use in Isan, the alphabet is enjoying a resurgence in Northern Thailand, and is still used as the primary written script for the Tai Lü and Tai Khün languages spoken in the border areas where Thailand, Laos, Burma and southern China meet.

    Khom scripts

    The Khom script was not generally used to write the ancient Lao language of Isan, but was often used to write Pali texts, or Brahmanic rituals often introduced via the Khmer culture. Khom is the ancient Tai word for the Khmer people, who once populated and ruled much of the area before Tai migration and the assimilation of the local people to Tai languages. The modern Khmer alphabet is its descendant. It was generally not used to write the Lao language per se, but was often found in temple inscriptions, used in texts that preserve Brahmanic mantras and ceremonies, local mantras adopted for use in Tai animistic religion and other things usually concerned with Buddhism, Brahmanism or black magic, such as yantras and sakyan tattoos.
    Also known by the same name is an obscure script that was invented for conveying secret messages that could not be deciphered by the French or Siamese forces that had divided Laos by Ong Kommandam, who had taken over as leader after the death of Ong Kèo during the Holy Man's Rebellion. As Ong Kommandam and many of his closest followers were speakers of Bahnaric languages spoken in southern Laos, most of the known texts in the language were written in Alak—Ong Kommandam's native language—and the Bahnaric Loven languages of Juk, Su' and Jru', and some in Lao.
    Although the shapes of the letters have a superficial resemblance to several writing systems in the area, it was not related to any of them. It enjoys some usage as a language of black magic and secrecy today, but only a handful of people are familiar with it. Although the word Khom originally referred to the Khmer, it was later applied to related Austroasiatic peoples such as the Lao Theung, many of which had supported Ong Kammandam.

    Overview of the relationship to Thai

    Mutual intelligibility with Thai

    Thai and Lao are all mutually intelligible, neighboring, closely related Tai languages. They share the same grammar, similar phonological patterns and a large inventory of shared vocabulary. Thai and Lao share not only core Tai vocabulary but also a large inventory of Indic and Austroasiatic, mainly Khmer, loan words that are identical between them. Even though Thai and Lao have their own respective scripts, with Isan speakers using the Thai script, the two orthographies are related, with similar letter forms as spelling conventions. A Thai person would probably be able to understand most of written Isan, and may be able to understand the spoken language with a little exposure.
    Although there are no barriers of mutual comprehension between a Lao speaker from Laos and an Isan speaker from Thailand, there are several linguistic and sociological factors that make the mutual intelligibility of Thai and Lao somewhat asymmetrical. First and foremost, most Lao speakers have knowledge of Thai. Most Lao speakers in Laos are able to receive Thai television and radio broadcasts and engage and participate in Thai websites and social media in Thai, but may not speak the language as well since Lao serves as the national and official state and public language of Laos. Isan speakers are almost universally bilingual, as Thai is the language of education, state, media and used in formal conversation. Isan speakers are able to read, write and understand spoken Thai, but their ability to speak Thai varies, with some from more remote regions unable to speak Thai very well, such as many children before schooling age and older speakers, but competence in Thai is based on factors such as age, distance from urban districts and education access.
    Thai speakers often have difficulty with some of the unique Lao features of Isan, such as very different tonal patterns, distinct vowel qualities and numerous common words with no Thai equivalent, as well as local names for many plants that are based on local coinages or older Mon-Khmer borrowings. A large number of Isan words and usages in Lao of Laos are cognates with old Thai usages no longer found in the modern language, or through drift, evolved to mean somewhat different things. Some Isan words are thus familiar to Thai students or enthusiasts of ancient literature or lakhon boran, soap opera-like serials that feature based on ancient Thai mythology or exploits of characters in previous periods, similar to the preservation of 'thou' and 'thee' in West Country English or modern students trying to parse the dialogue of Shakespeare's plays. The use of Thai etymological spelling of Isan words belies the phonological differences. Tones, which are phonemic in all Thai languages, are enough to make some words out of context to be perceived as something else. Same can be said for certain vowel transformations that took place in Lao after spelling came to be, that radically alter the pronunciation. Differences are enough that the film Yam Yasothon, 'Hello Yasothon'—better translated as 'Smile and Laugh Yasothon'—is shown in cinemas outside of Northeastern Thailand with Standard Thai subtitles. The movie, which features Isan actors and actresses, takes place in the Isan region, and surprisingly for a Thai movie with nationwide release, a predominately Isan dialogue.

    False cognates

    Many Isan terms are very similar to words that are profane, vulgar or insulting in the Thai language, features which are much deprecated. Isan uses อี่ and อ้าย, to refer to young girls and slightly older boys, respectively. In Thai, the similarly sounding อี, i and ไอ้, ai are often prefixed before a woman's or man's name, respectively, or alone or in phrases which are considered extremely vulgar and insulting. This taboo expressions such as อีตัว "i tua", "whore" and ไอ้บ้า, "ai ba", "son of a bitch".
    In Isan and Lao, these prefixes are used in innocent ways as it does not carry the same connotation, even though they share these insults with Thai. In Isan, it is quite common to refer to a young girl named 'Nok' as I Nok and I Pho, respectively. Of course, as Thai only uses there cognate prefixes in fairly negative words and expressions, the sound of Isan i mae would cause some embarrassment in certain situations. The low status of the language is contributing to the language shift currently taking place among younger Isan people, and some Isan children are unable to speak the language fluently, but the need for Thai will not diminish as it is mandatory for education and career advancement.
    IsanLaoIPAUsageThaiIPAUsage
    บัก, bakບັກ, bakUsed alone or prefixed before a man's name, only used when addressing a man of equal or lower socio-economic status and/or age.บัก, bakAlone, refers to a "penis" or in the expression บักโกรก, bak khrok, or an unflattering way to refer to someone as "skinny".
    หำน้อย, ham noyຫຳນ້ອຍ/archaic ຫຳນ້ຽ, ham noyAlthough ham has the meaning of "testicles", the phrase bak ham noy is used to refer to a small boy. Bak ham by itself is used to refer to a "young man".หำน้อย, ham noyThis would sound similar to saying "small testicles" in Thai, and would be a rather crude expression. Bak ham is instead ชายหนุ่ม, chai num and bak ham noy is instead เด็กหนุ่ม, dek num when referring to "young man" and "young boy", respectively, in Thai.
    หมู่, muໝູ່, mouMu is used to refer to a group of things or people, such as หมู่เฮา, mu hao, mou hao or "all of us" or "we all". Not to be confused for หมู, mu, 'pig', cf. Lao ໝູ/ຫມູ, mou or 'pig.'พวก, phuakThe Isan word หมู่ sounds like the Thai word หมู, 'pig', in most varieties of Isan. To refer to groups of people, the equivalent expression is พวก, phuak, i.e., พวกเรา, phuak rao, which is another vulgar, slang word for "penis".

    Phonological differences

    Isan speakers share the phonology of the Lao language of Laos, so the differences between Thai and Isan are the same as the differences between Thai and Lao. Even in shared vocabulary, differences in vowel distributions, tone and consonant inventory can hinder comprehension even with cognate vocabulary. In typical words, Lao and Isan lack the and, instead substituting and for instances of Thai and for Thai. Lao and Isan, however, include the sounds and which are replaced with Thai and, respectively, in cognate vocabulary.

    Absence of consonant clusters

    In the development of the Lao language, the consonant clusters in the historical Tai languages were quickly lost. Although they sometimes appear in the oldest Lao texts, as they were not pronounced they quickly disappeared from writing. Clusters were re-introduced via loan words from Sanskrit, Khmer and other local Austroasiatic languages as well as in more recent times, via French and English. In these instances, the loan words are sometimes pronounced with clusters by very erudite speakers, but in general these are also simplified. For example, although ໂປຣກຣາມ, via programme, and maitri from मैत्री are common, more often than not, they exist as ໂປກາມ and ໄມຕີ, respectively.
    The Thai language preserved the consonant clusters from older stages of the Tai languages and maintains them in writing and in careful pronunciation, although their pronunciation is relaxed in very informal speech. Due to the highly etymological spelling of Thai, consonant clusters from loan words such as Sanskrit and English are carefully preserved and pronounced. Isan, as a descendant of Lao, does not traditionally pronounce these clusters as they are absent from the spoken language, except in some high-brow words, but they are always written, as Isan uses the Thai alphabet and Thai spelling of cognate words. Although Isan speakers write maitri ไมตรี and prokraem โปรแกรม, via English 'programme' or 'program', they use the pronunciations and.

    Merger of /r/ with /l/ or /h/

    In the modern Lao script, and the old Tai Noi script once used in what is now Isan, 'ຮ' /h/, itself a modification of the letter 'ຣ' /r/, was used to represent words that etymologically had /r/ but were now /h/. Native words that did not undergo transformation to /h/ instead became /l/ and were spelled with 'ລ'. However, /r/ was retained in some religious, technical and academic vocabulary, as well as loan words from Sanskrit, Khmer, French and English. In these instances, the pronunciation of 'ຣ' /r/ is /r/ amongst erudite speakers, particularly older people and those in the diaspora, and /l/ generally. Reforms after 1975 replaced most instances of 'ຣ' /r/ with 'ລ' /l/ in writing and speech. In Isan, the letter 'ฮ' /h/ is used analogously to Lao 'ຮ' /h/, although the Thai spelling of 'ร' is retained even when speakers pronounce it as /l/, possibly because even Central Thai speakers use /l/ in relaxed and informal environments. A notable exception is the word for 'to dance' or lam, which is cognate to รำ, but also appears with /l/ in ລຳ.
    Although there are more words that are /l/ than /h/ that descend from Proto-Southwestern /r/, Lao speakers in Laos tend to use words with /h/ more frequently and consistently. In Isan, possibly due to the massive influence of Thai, /l/ is gaining usage at the expense of /h/. However, increased usage of /l/ or /h/ in speech is not a defining characteristic, with varieties on both sides of the Mekong having different distributions, although greater use of /h/ in Isan would definitely be a mark of a very conservative, rural dialect.
    The Proto-Tai sounds */ɟ/ and */ʑ/ had likely merged in Southwestern Tai, and developed into /tɕʰ/ in Thai, but this was later merged into /s/ in Lao and traditional Isan pronunciation. As a result of this, Isan speakers writing the language in the Thai orthography will sometimes replace 'ช' /tɕʰ/ with 'ช' /s/ in cognate vocabulary, but unless they are code-switching into Thai or in very formal contexts that demand increased use of Thai-language phrases, Isan speakers traditionally replace all /tɕʰ/ with /s/ in speech. In Lao, the letter 'ຊ' /s/ is used in analogous positions where one would expect Thai 'ช' /tɕʰ/ or the rare letter 'ฌ' /tɕʰ/, the latter of which occurs only in rare loan words from Sanskrit and Pali. The Thai letter 'ฉ' /tɕʰ/ is also pronounced /s/ in Isan, but for sake of tone, corresponds better to 'ส' /s/ even though it is not written out this way. In Lao, the letter 'ສ' /s/ is used in analogous positions. The Thai letter 'ฉ' is generally only found in ancient words of Sanskrit or Khmer derivation and recent loan words from Teochew or Hokkien.

    Resistance to the Thai /j/-/ŋ/ merger

    Although Proto-Southwestern Tai maintained the distinctions of Proto-Tai */ɲ/, */j/, */ʰɲ/ and */ˀj/ into /j/, all of these merged into /j/ in Standard Thai. In the Lao-Phuthai languages and languages such as Phuan and Tai Lanna, /ɲ/ is the usual outcome although all these languages retain a small subset of words with /j/, with the distinction being phonemic. In the Lao alphabet, the two realisations are represented orthographically as 'ຍ' /ɲ/ and 'ຢ' /j/, although 'ຽ' traditionally replaced both letters at the end of syllables and in the combination now written 'ຫຍ', but this is still found in old writings and material produced by overseas Laotians of the older generations.
    The loss of the distinction between /ɲ/ and /j/ in Thai occurred shortly after the adoption of writing, as there are some vestiges in the spelling. For instance, Proto-Tai */ˀj/, is suggested in the spelling of some Thai words with the sequence 'อย'. In Lao cognates, this developed into /j/ and not /ɲ/. Similarly, the Thai letter 'ญ' usually appears in loan words from Sanskrit, Pali, Khmer or Mon where /ɲ/ occurred in the source language, but is now /j/. In the handful of native Thai terms that have this spelling correspond to Lao /ɲ/.
    The Lao language preserved /ɲ/ at the expense of /j/, represented separately by the consonants 'ຍ' and 'ຢ', respectively. Despite the fact that most instances of */ˀj/ in Proto-Tai correspond to /j/ in Lao, half the cases of Proto-Tai */j/ and all instances of */ʰɲ/ and */ɲ/ all became /ɲ/. In the Lao language of Laos, even words from Sanskrit, Pali, Khmer or Mon with consonantal /j/ are replaced by /ɲ/, whereas in the Isan variety, this might be somewhat less common due to the influence or interference of mandatory Thai in formal vocabulary but remains phonemic in common words of the everyday spoken language. As the Lao language of Isan is written in Thai according to Thai spelling rules, the distinction cannot be made by the orthography. As a result, ya ຢາ, 'medicine', and gna ຍາ, an honorary prefix used for addressing people similar in age to one's grandparents, correspond to ยา, suggestive of only.
    Isan speakers, similar to Lao speakers in Laos, often pronounce consonantal 'ว' at the start of syllables as, a sound which does not exist in Thai, where the sound is. In Laos, the Lao letter 'ວ' is often pronounced. This trait is considered provincial in Thailand as it deviates from the standard language, but in Laos, the pronunciation is common, but historically was the mark of erudition or nobility. There is no difference in spelling, as this variation is an allophone of, but it is the more common pronunciation overall in Isan and Laos.
    'sin' or 'transgression'
    'walled city'
    Lao and Isan innovated a diphthongisation of certain vowels that follow consonant clusters C/w/. This can only occur with clusters /kw/ and /kʰw/ and only effects vowels /aː/, /a/ and /am/. In Isan using Thai script, this corresponds to the clusters 'กว' /kw/, 'ขว' and 'คว' as /kʰw/ and vowels, with the null consonant 'อ', such s 'อา' /aː/, 'อั' /a/ and 'อำ' /am/, respectively. In the Lao script, this corresponds to the clusters 'ກວ', 'ຂວ' and 'ຄວ' and the vowels with the null consonant 'ອ', viz., 'ອາ', 'ອັ' and 'ອຳ', respectively.
    In cognate vocabulary with Thai where the diphthongisation occurs, the Lao spelling corresponds to the Thai spelling and suggests a similar pronunciation. This indicates that it is more recent development in the Lao-Phuthai languages that occurred after the adoption of writing in the fourteenth century. It is also restricted. Khwaeng, which in Thai usually refers to a subdistrict in urban areas is cognate to the khwèng which is used for 'province' although it historically referred to provincial districts, does not undergo diphthongisation and the cluster remains intact.

    Increased vowel epenthesis

    In abugida scripts, the inherent vowel /a/ is often unwritten, especially in many words from Sanskrit, Pali or Austroasiatic languages. Thai uses a number of Pali and Sanskrit roots to form new words, but just because the inherent vowels are pronounced in one word does not mean it will appear in another word with the same root. Thus, the pronunciation of many words of Indic derivation must be learned on a case-by-case basis, and little guides from spelling. For example, Thai 'ธรรม-' appears as in ธรรมนิตย์ thammanit 'TH-R-R-M-N-I-T-', 'moral person' but as in ธรรมเกษตร, thamkaset 'TH-R-R-M-E-K-S-T-R', 'land of justice'.
    Lao tends to go the opposite direction, and with the required writing of all vowels in the most recent spelling reforms, this can be seen, with Lao ທຳມະນິດ thammanit 'TH-AM-M-A-N-I-D' and ທຳມະກະເສດ thammakasèt 'TH-AM-M-A-K-A-E-S-D'. Isan, follows Lao pronunciation, although educated speakers may pronounce the words in the Thai fashion. The Thai distinction is not justified by etymology, as both words derive from Sanskrit dharmanitya and dharmakṣetra, originally meaning 'pious man' but adopted into Thai and Lao to refer to the land of pious people.
    Nevertheless, the Isan pronunciation is considered provincial and uneducated, akin to the mispronunciation of English 'athlete' as *'athelete' * in non-standard usage or 'arthritis' as *'arthuritis' * and is thus stigmatised. This process also effects sentences with Tai vocabulary, with inserted after hard consonant to soften the sound and flow of speech, i.e., จักน้อยเด้อ, chak noy doe, 'I shall in a little,' is often pronounced in Isan as *จักกะน้อยเด้อ *chakka noy doe.
    Cf. Lao ຈັກນ້ອຍນ້ອຽແດ່ chak noy dè vs. the casually pronounced *ຈັກກະນ້ອຍນ້ອຽແດ່, *chakka noy dè.
    'psychology'
    'fish'
    'philosophy'
    'Mekong River'
    'Chaiburi'
    'Hanuman'
    The Thai diphthong 'เ◌ือ' is often pronounced as in Isan and is analogous to Lao ເxືອ, which begins with a lengthened close central unrounded vowel as opposed to the close back unrounded vowel of Thai. This vowel is written analogously in Lao. Depending on dialect or region, some speakers in Laos or Isan may also use.
    'month'
    'tiger'
    Tone ClassInherent Toneไม้เอก ไม้โท Long VowelShort Vowel
    High Rising/Low-RisingLow/MiddleFalling/Low-FallingLow/Low-FallingLow/Mid-Rising
    High Rising/Low-RisingLow/MiddleFalling/LowLow/LowLow/Low
    Middle Middle/Low-RisingLow/iddleFalling/High-FallingFalling/High-FallingLow/Mid-Rising
    Middle Middle/Rising-Mid-FallingLow/MiddleFalling/Mid-FallingFalling/LowLow/Low
    Low Middle/High-RisingFalling/MiddleHigh/High-FallingHigh/High-FallingFalling/Middle
    Low Middle/Rising-High-FallingFalling/LowHigh/High-FallingHigh/MiddleFalling/Middle

    Even Thai words with clear cognates in Lao and Isan can differ remarkably by tone. Determining the tone of a word by spelling is complicated. Every consonant falls into a category of high, middle or low class. Then, one must determine whether the syllable has a long or a short syllable and whether it ends in a sonorant or plosive consonant and, if there are any, whatever tone marks may move the tone. Thai กา ka, crow, has a middle tone in Thai, as it contains a mid-class consonant with a long vowel that does not end in a plosive. In Standard Lao, the same environments produce a low-rising tone but is typically or rising-mid-falling in Western Lao.
    Despite the differences in pattern, the orthography used to write words is nearly the same in Thai and Lao, even using the same tone marks in most places, so it is knowing the spoken language and how it maps out to the rules of the written language that determine the tone. However, as the Tai languages are tonal languages, with tone being an important phonemic feature, spoken Lao or Isan words out of context, even if they are cognate, may sound closer to Thai words of different meaning. Thai คา kha, 'to stick' is cognate to Isan คา and Lao ຄາ, which in Vientiane Lao is pronounced, which may sound like Thai ค้า kha, 'to trade' due to similarity in tone. The same word in some parts of Isan near Roi Et Province would confusingly sound to Thai ears like ขา kha with a rising tone, where the local tone patterns would have many pronounce the word with a rising-high-falling heavier on the rising. Although a native Thai speaker would be able to pick up the meaning of the similar words of Isan through context, and after a period of time, would get used to the different tones, it can cause many initial misunderstandings.

    Different speaking styles

    Despite the similarities, the Thai and Lao languages have very different speaking styles. Thai speakers tend to use many euphemisms, cute expressions, word play or abbreviations and situations that require 'nuanced' usage or implied meanings. For instance, in relaxed and casual speech, pronouns are normally dropped unless needed for emphasis or disambiguation. With Bangkok serving as Thailand's primary city and home to the majority of media corporations, government, academic, entertainment and infrastructure as well as roughly a quarter of the population in its metropolitan area, the influence of Bangkok's urban slang permeates spoken language of most native Thai speakers.
    Lao conversations are often more direct. Although spoken Isan has its own set of flowery language, word play and strategic vocabulary, they are not as commonly invoked in speech but rather feature heavily in the lyrics of local musical forms such as molam and poetry. Lao speakers also tend to use most pronouns, especially the ones for 'I' and 'you' even in relaxed speech. In Thai and Lao, the increased usage of pronouns occurs in formal and polite usage whereas both reduce their usage in relaxed, casual speech. Thus, compared to Thai, Isan conversations can seem more abrupt, serious, formal to the point of distant to Thai speakers. This perception is nevertheless offset by the large number of Isan words that sound like or are cognate to Thai words that are considered vulgar, and the greater use of native Tai vocabulary which may seem simple compared to the generally larger proportion of Indic vocabulary in Thai.

    Lexical differences from Thai

    Although the majority of Isan words are cognate with Thai, and Thai influences are even creeping into the vocabulary, many basic words used in everyday conversation are either lacking cognates in Thai, but share them with Lao. Some usages vary only by frequency or register. For instance, the Thai question word 'เท่าไหร่' is cognate with Isan 'เท่าใด' and Lao 'ເທົ່າໃດ', but Isan and Lao tend to use a related variant form 'ท่อใด' and 'ທໍ່ໃດ', respectively, more frequently, although the usage is interchangeable and preference probably more related to region and person.
    In other areas, Isan preserves the older Tai vocabulary. For example, the old Thai word for a 'glass', such as a 'glass of beer' or 'glass of water' was 'จอก' chok, but this usage is now obsolete as the word has been replaced by Thai 'แก้ว' kaew. Conversely, Isan and Lao continue to use 'จอก' and 'ຈອກ' chok to mean 'glass' as, but Isan 'แก้ว' and Lao 'ແກ້ວ' kéo retain the earlier meaning of Thai 'แก้ว' as 'gem', 'crystal' or 'glass' still seen in the names of old temples, such as 'Wat Phra Kaew' or 'Temple of the Holy Gem'. Nonetheless, a lot of cognate vocabulary is pronounced differently in vowel quality and tone and sometimes consonant sounds to be unrecognisable or do not share a cognate at all. For example, Isan บ่ bo and Lao ບໍ່ bo are not related to Thai ไม่, mai
    EnglishIsanLaoThai
    "no", "not"บ่,, boບໍ່,, boไม่,, mai
    "to speak"เว้า,, waoເວົ້າ,, vaoพูด,, phut
    "how much"ท่อใด,, thodaiທໍ່ໃດ,, thodaiเท่าไหร่*,, thaorai
    "to do, to make"เฮ็ด,, het*ເຮັດ,, hetทำ*,, tham
    "to learn"เฮียน,, hianຮຽນ,, hianเรียน,, rian
    "glass"จอก,, chokຈອກ,, chokแก้ว*,, kaew
    "yonder"พู้น,, phunພຸ້ນ,, phouneโน่น,, non
    "algebra"พีซคณิต,, phisakhanitພີຊະຄະນິດ/Archaic ພີຊຄນິດ,, phixakhanitพีชคณิต,, phitkhanit
    "fruit"หมากไม้,, makmaiໝາກໄມ້,, makmaiผลไม้,, phonlamai
    "too much"โพด,, photໂພດ,, phôtเกินไป, kɤn paj, koenbai
    "to call"เอิ้น,, oenເອີ້ນ,, uneเรียก,, riak
    "a little"หน่อยนึง,, noi neungໜ່ອຍນຶ່ງ/Archaic ໜ່ຽນຶ່ງ,, noi nungนิดหน่อย,, nit noi
    "house, home"เฮือน,, heuanເຮືອນ*,, huaneบ้าน*,, ban
    "to lower"หลุด,, lutຫຼຸດ/ຫລຸດ),, loutลด,, lot
    "sausage"ไส้อั่ว,, sai uaໄສ້ອ່ົວ,, sai ouaไส้กรอก,, sai krok
    "to walk"ย่าง,, yangຍ່າງ,, gnangเดิน,, doen
    "philosophy"ปรัซญา,, pratsayaປັດຊະຍາ/Archaic ປັຊຍາ,, patsagnaปรัชญา,, pratya
    "oldest child"ลูกกก,, luk kokລູກກົກ,, louk kôkลูกคนโต,, luk khon to
    "frangipani blossom"ดอกจำปา, ດອກຈຳປາ, ดอกลั่นทม,
    "tomato"หมากเล่น,, mak lenໝາກເລັ່ນ,, mak lénมะเขือเทศ,, makheuathet
    "much", "many"หลาย,, laiຫຼາຍ,, laiมาก,, mak
    "father-in-law"พ่อเฒ่า,, pho thaoພໍ່ເຖົ້າ,, pho thaoพ่อตา,, pho ta
    "to stop"เซา,, saoເຊົາ,, xaoหยุด,, yut
    "to like"มัก,, makມັກ,, makชอบ,, chop
    "good luck"โซกดี,, sok diໂຊຄດີ,, xôk diโชคดี,, chok di
    "delicious"แซบ,, saepແຊບ,, xèpอร่อย,, aroi
    "fun"ม่วน,, muanມ່ວນ,, mouaneสนุก,, sanuk
    "really"อี่หลี,, ili****ອີ່ຫຼີ,, iliจริง*,, ching
    "elegant"โก้,, koໂກ້,, kôหรูหรา,, rura
    "ox"งัว,, nguaງົວ,, ngouaวัว,, wua

    Whereas Thai and Isan are mutually intelligible with some difficulty, there are enough distinctions between the two to clearly separate the Thai and Isan languages based on vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation differences, with even Isan written in Thai recognizable as Isan due to the preponderance of Lao words with no equivalent Thai cognate or have come to mean different things. Isan houses the majority of Lao speakers and the affinity of shared culture with Laos is palpable in the food, architecture, music and language of the region. In its purest spoken form, the Isan language is basically the same as what is spoken in Laos.
    Using just tone and some lexical items, there are at least twelve distinct speech varieties of Isan, most of which also continue across the Mekong River into Laos. In fact, the different speech varieties on roughly the same latitude tend to have more affinity with each other, despite the international border, than to speech varieties to the north and south. Only a handful of lexical items and grammatical differences exist that differentiate Isan as a whole, mainly as a result of more than a century of political separation, but most of these terms were introduced in the 1980s when the region was better integrated into Thailand's transportation and communication infrastructure.

    Spelling and orthography

    Isan and Lao have drifted away from each other mostly in terms of the written language. The Isan people were forced to abandon their traditional Tai Noy script and have come to use the Thai written language, or Isan written in Thai, for communication. In Laos, Tai Noy was modified into the modern Lao script, but several spelling changes in the language during the transition from the Lao monarchy to the communist rule moved Thai spelling and Lao spelling of cognate words further apart. Isan, writes all words with Thai cognates as they exist in Thai, with clusters, special letters only found in obscure Sanskrit words and etymological principles that preserve silent letters and numerous exceptions to Thai pronunciation rules although a small handful of Isan words, with no known or very obscure Thai cognates, are spelled more or less the same as they are in Lao.
    Lao spelling in Laos was standardised in the opposite direction. Whilst previously written in a mixture of etymological and phonetical spellings, depending on audience or author, the language underwent several reforms that moved the language towards a purely phonetical spelling. During the restoration of the king of Louang Phabang as King of Laos under the last years of French rule in Laos, the government standardised the spelling of the Lao language, with movement towards a phonetical spelling with preservation of a semi-etymological spelling for Pali, Sanskrit and French loan words and the addition of archaic letters for words of Pali and Sanskrit origin concerning Indic culture and Buddhism.
    Spelling reforms under the communist rule of Laos in 1975 were more radical, with the complete abolition of semi-etymological spelling in favour of phonetical spelling, with the removal of silent letters, removal of special letters for Indic loan words, all vowels being written out implicitly and even the elimination or replacement of the letter 'ຣ' in official publications, although older people and many in the Lao diaspora continue to use some of the older spelling conventions. The examples demonstrate the differences between Lao and Isan, using Thai orthography, but also that between archaic and modern Lao, as well as the general pronunciation and spelling practices between Standard Thai and Standard Lao in general.

    Silent letters: Lao removal and Thai retention

    Numerous loan words from other languages, particularly Sanskrit and Pali, have numerous silent letters, sometimes even syllables, that are not pronounced in either Thai, Isan or Lao. In most cases, one of the final consonants in a word, or elsewhere in more recent loans from European languages, will have a special mark written over it and Lao as karan/kalan.
    In reforms of the Lao language, these silent letters were removed from official spelling, moving the spelling of numerous loan words from etymological to phonetical. For instance the homophones pronounced are all written in modern Lao as ຈັນ CH-A-N, chan, but these were previously distinguished in writing as ຈັນທ໌ CH-A-N- or ຈັນທຣ໌ CH-A-N--, 'moon'; ຈັນທ໌ CH-A-N- or ຈັນທນ໌ CH-A-N--, 'sandalwood' and ຈັນ CH-A-N, 'cruel.' In Isan, using Thai etymological spelling, the respective spellings are จันทร์ CH-A-N--, จันทน์ CH-A-N-- and จัน, CH-A-N, with the latter being a shared Lao-Isan word with no Thai cognate.
    'Vientiane'
    'gear'
    'animal'
    The oldest texts in the Tai Noy corpus show that the earliest stages of the Lao language had consonant clusters in some native words as well as many loan words from Khmer, Mon, other Ausroasiatic languages, Sanskrit and Pali. Although most of these were maintained in Thai pronunciation, these clusters were quickly abandoned, indicating that the Tai dialects that became the Lao language lacked them or that they lost them through separate language development. Unlike the Thai script, Lao preserves a subscript version of /l/ and /r/ ' ຼ ' that was commonly used in the ancient Tai noy script when these clusters were pronounced and written.
    Some consonant clusters were maintained in the Lao language for some vocabulary, mostly of Sanskrit and Pali derivation and used in royalty or religious settings, but the most recent spelling reforms in the Lao language removed most of them. The Thai language has preserved all of them, and when Isan is written in Thai, cognates of Thai words are spelled as if they are pronounced in Thai, with consonant clusters that are usually not pronounced in Isan except some religious and technical terms.
    'garlic'
    'country'
    'to be entertained'
    'to be finished'
    'Buddha'
    As consonants may have one value at the start of a consonant and one at the end, occasionally the same letter will be used to end one syllable and begin the next. This remains common in many loan words from Sanskrit and Pali, and was once the case in Lao orthography, but now the different consonant sounds are written out explicitly and no longer implied from older and confusing rules of spelling. Thai, with its etymological spelling, preserves the implied pronunciation of these geminated consonant groupings.
    'girl of noble birth'
    'good fortune'
    Lao uses two vowel symbols inherited from Tai Noy, one of which ' ໍ ' or the nikkhahit is used to denote the vowel in open syllables where that is the final sound in the syllable and the other ' ົ ' or mai kan which is used to denote the vowel, both of which are sometimes implied in Thai orthography. The latter symbol is also used with some vowels with various meanings. The viram was formerly used as a variant of Lao letter 'ຍ' in a word as well as several other uses.
    'person' or 'people'
    'litter' or 'palanquin'
    'emerald'
    'small'
    'to write'
    'green'
    Both Thai, Lao and Isan only permit the final cosonants,,,,, and, with many letters beginning a syllable with one sound and ending a syllable or word with another. Spelling reforms in Laos restricted the final consonants to be spelled 'ກ', 'ງ', 'ດ', 'ນ', 'ບ' and 'ມ' which correspond to Thai letters 'ก', 'ง', 'ด', 'น', 'บ' and 'ม', respectively. As Thai has retained these final consonants according to etymology, this has further moved Lao spelling from Thai and Isan written in Thai in a large number of common words.
    'to draw a picture'
    'happiness'
    'ancient times'
    The archaic vowels 'xັຽ' and 'xັມ' were replaced with existing vowels 'ໄ' and 'ຳ' as these pairs both represented and, respectively. The Lao vowel 'ໄxຽ' was also replaced by 'ໄ'.
    'to update'
    'dharma'
    'disciplined' or 'educated person'
    In the abugida systems, open syllables are assumed to have or following them. Modern Lao spelling requires that all vowels are written out, altering the spelling of numerous words and furthering the language from Thai. As this can alter the tone of the words, sometimes tone marks or silent are used to either represent the actual pronunciation of the word or restore it to its original pronunciation.
    'city'
    'street'
    'paradise'
    Lao uses a silent letter 'ຫ' in front of consonants 'ງ', 'ຍ', 'ນ', 'ມ', 'ລ', 'ຣ' or and 'ວ' to move these consonants into the high tone class, used to alter the tone of a word. This is analogous to the use of 'ห' before the equivalent 'ง', 'ย' , 'น', 'ม', 'ล', 'ร' and 'ว' and 'ຫຽ' HY with the latter replaced by 'ຫຍ' HY . Former ligatures such as SN and ML have disappeared or were split into syllables as consonant clusters were generally lost or replaced. For example, Archaic Lao ສນອງ SN-O-NG and ມຼາບຼີ ML-A-BR-I have become in the modern language ສະໜອງ S-A-N-O-NG sanong, 'message' and ມະລາບີ M-A-L-A-B-I malabi, approximation of endonym of the Mlabri people. Thai preserves writing the consonants together, although in the modern Thai language these consonants are separated by a vowel according to the current pronunciation rules.
    Both Tai Noy and the current Lao alphabet lack equivalents to the Thai vowel ligatures 'ฤ', 'ฤๅ', 'ฦ' 'ฦๅ' and are mainly used to represent the sounds or,, and, respectively, although the latter two symbols are obsolete in modern Thai. These symbols were used to represent loanwords from Sanskrit 'ऋ', 'ॠ', 'ऌ' and 'ॡ', respectively, but these are relatively rare sounds in Sanskrit.
    'Louang Phrabang'
    'mouse'
    'fruit'
    'season'
    'mysterious'
    'famous'
    Traditionally, no punctuation exists in either Thai or Lao, with spaces used to separate lists, sentences and clauses, but otherwise words are written with no spaces between them. A few symbols include the cancellation mark 'x໌' used to mark letters in loan words that are not pronounced, the repetition symbol 'ໆ' used to indicate words or phrases are to be repeated, an ellipsis-like symbol 'ຯ' used to shorten lengthy phrases, such as royal titles or to indicate that following portions have been removed and the equivalent to the et cetera symbol 'ຯລຯ'. These all have equivalents in the Thai script as 'x์', 'ๆ', 'ฯ' and 'ฯลฯ'.
    Other Thai symbols, such as '๏', used for marking the beginning of texts, lines or stanzas, '๛' to mark the end of chapters, 'ฯะ' to mark the end of stanzas and '๚' to mark the end of sections. These symbols could be combined to provide meaning. A similar system was in use in Laos but was later abolished. The system is mostly archaic in Thai texts, but is still taught as many old texts feature these symbols.
    Lao only uses two of the tone marks 'x່' and 'x້', although 'x໊' and 'x໋' may occasionally be used to record idiosyncratic or emotional speech, as aids to capture tones of different dialects or onomatopoeia. In Thai, the equivalent tone marks are 'x่', 'x้', x๊ and x๋, respectively. Although in Thai, the third and fourth tone markers are rare, they are frequently used to approximate the tones of hundreds of Chinese loan words, dialectal expressions and onomatopoeia.
    'soy sauce'
    'Chinese noodle soup'

    Formal language

    Since the use of Central Thai is deemed polite and mandatory in official and formal settings, Isan speakers will often use the Thai ครับ, khrap, used by males, and ค่ะ, kha, used by females, sometimes in place of or after the ones shared with Lao. Isan speakers, however, do not use the very formal particle ข้าน้อย, khanoy at the end of sentences. Also, the use of เจ้า, chao and formal โดย, doy , to mark the affirmative or "yes" is no longer used in Isan, instead this is replaced with the general ending particles or the equivalent Thai expression.

    Word order

    A very few compounds in Lao are left-branching, but most of the time they are right-branching, as they are almost always in Thai and Isan.
    Lao and Isan share most of their vocabulary, tone, and grammatical features, and the barriers of comprehension that would exist between a Thai speaker and a Lao speaker are absent between speakers of Isan and Lao. Technical, academic, and scientific language, and different sources for loan words have diverged the speech to an extent. Isan has borrowed most of its vocabulary from Thai, including numerous English and Chinese loan words that are commonly used in Thai. Lao, on the other hand, has influences from French and Vietnamese that come from the establishment of the Protectorate of Laos and its inclusion in French Indochina. In ordinary and casual speech, only a few lexical items separate Isan and Lao, and many dialects do not end at the border.

    Thai influences

    The main thing that differentiates Isan from Lao is the use of numerous Thai words. The process accelerated with greater integration of Isan into Thai political control in the early 20th century. Thai words make up the bulk of scientific, technical, governmental, political, academic, and slang vocabularies that have been adopted in Isan. Many words used in Isan have become obsolete, such as the use of ขัว, khua and น้ำก้อน, nam kon, which exist in Laos as ຂົວ and ນ້ຳກ້ອນ, but replaced by Thai forms สะพาน, saphan, and น้ำแข็ง, nam khaeng, respectively. Thai, Isan, and Lao share vocabulary, but sometimes this can vary in frequency. For instance, Lao speakers use ສະພານ, saphan, as a more formal word for "bridge". The very formal Thai word for "house", เรือน, reuan is cognate to the common Isan เฮือน, heuan, and Lao ເຮືອນ, huan. Although many Lao speakers can understand and speak Thai due to exposure to Thai publications and media, the official status of the language in Laos, pressure to preserve the Lao language, and unique neologisms and other influences differentiate the language from Thai. A few neologisms in Laos are unique coinages.
    EnglishIsan*Non-Existent IsanLaoThai
    "politburo"โปลิตบูโร,, politburo*กมการเมือง, *, *komkammeuangກົມການເມືອງ,, komkammuangโปลิตบูโร,, politburo
    "washing machine"เครื่องซักผ้า,, khreuang sakpha*จักซักเครื่อง, *, *chak sakkhreuangຈັກຊັກເຄື່ອງ,, chak xakkhuangเครื่องซักผ้า*,, khreuang sakpha
    "aeroplane", "airplane" เครื่องบิน,, khreuang bin*เฮือบิน, *, *heua bin,ເຮືອບິນ,, hua binเครื่องบิน,, khreuang bin
    "provincial sub-district"ตำบล, tambon, *ตาแสง, *, *tasaengຕາແສງ, tasèng, ตำบล, tambon,

    Lack of French influences

    The incorporation of Isan into Siam prevented the Lao language spoken there from the adoption of French loan words. From 1893 till 1954, the French language was the administrative language of the Protectorate of Laos. The language continues to remain a second language of international diplomacy, higher education, government, and the old elite. Laos has been affiliated with La Francophonie since 1972, with full-member status in 1992. As of 2010, 173,800 people, approximately 3% of the population, were counted as French speakers. French-language content is occasionally found on Lao national radio and television, as well as in the weekly La Renovateur and alongside English in publications of Khaosane Pathét Lao News. In Isan, most words of European origin have entered the language via Thai, especially from English, which helps to differentiate the speech on either side of the Mekong River.
    EnglishIsan*Non-Existent IsanLaoThaiFrench
    "necktie", เนคไท,, nek thai*การะวัด, *, *karawatກາລະວັດ/Archaic ກາຣະວັດ,, karavatเนคไท,, nek thaicravate, -
    "cinema", "movie theater" โรงภาพยนตร์,, rong phapayon*โฮงซิเนมา, *, *hong sinemaໂຮງຊີເນມາ,, hông xinémaโรงภาพยนตร์,, rong phapayoncinéma, -
    "dictionary"พจนานุกรม,, photchanukrom*ดิซอนแนร์*, *, *disonnaeດີຊອນແນ/Archaic ດີຊອນແນຣ໌*,, dixonnèพจนานุกรม,, photchanukromdictionnaire, -
    "whale", ปลาวาฬ,, pla wan*ปลาบาแลน, *, *pla balaenປາບາແລນ,, pa balènปลาวาฬ,, pla wanbaleine, -
    "postman", "mailman" คนส่งไปรษณีย์,, khon song praisani*ฟักเตอร์, *, *faktoeຟັກເຕີ/Archaic ຟັກເຕີຣ໌*,, fakteuคนส่งไปรษณีย์,, khon song praisanifacteur, -
    "Africa", ทวีปแอฟริกา ,, thawip aefrika*ทวีปอาฟรีก, *, *thawip afrikທະວີບອາຟິກ/Archaic ທວີບອາຟຣິກ,, thavip afrikทวีปแอฟริกา,, thawip aefrikaAfrique, -
    "apple", หมากแอปเปิล ,, mak aeppoen*หมากป่ม, *, *mak pomໝາກປົ່ມ/ຫມາກປົ່ມ,, mak pomผลแอปเปิล,, phon aeppoenpomme, -
    "wine", ไวน์,, wai*แวง, *, *waengແວງ,, vèngไวน์,, waivin, -
    "butter"เนย,, noei*เบอร์, *, *boeເບີ/Archaic ເບີຣ໌,, beuเนย,, noeibeurre, -
    "centimetre", "centimeter", เซนติเมตร,, sentimet*ซังตีแมตร, *, *sangtimaetຊັງຕີແມດ/Archaic ຊັງຕີແມຕຣ໌,, xangtimètเซนติเมตร,, sentimetcentimètre, -
    "billiards", บิลเลียด,, binliat*บียา, *, *biyaບີຢາ,, biyaบิลเลียด,, binliatbillard, -

    The French brought Vietnamese to Laos to boost the population of the larger cities and Vietnamese administrators to help govern the region. Large numbers of Vietnamese troops were stationed in Laos during at various times in Laos' history. This has enriched Lao with more Vietnamese influences which are not present in Isan.
    EnglishIsan*Non-Existent IsanLaoThaiVietnamese
    "noodle soup"ก๋วยเตี๋ยว,, kuai tiao*เฝอ, *, *foeເຝີ,, feuก๋วยเตี๋ยว*,, kuai tiaophở, -
    "to abstain"เยื้อน*,, yeuan*เกียง, *, *kiangກຽງ,, kiangงดเว้น,, ngot wenkiêng, -
    "to work"เฮ็ดงาน*,, het ngan*เฮ็ดเวียก, *, *het wiakເຮັດວຽກ,, het viakทำงาน*,, tham nganviệc, -

    A small handful of lexical items are unique to Isan and not commonly found in standard Lao, but may exist in other Lao dialects. Some of these words exist alongside more typically Lao or Thai usages.
    EnglishIsan*Non-Existent LaoLaoThaiIsan Variant
    'to be well'ซำบาย,, sambai*ຊຳບາຍ, *, *xambaiສະບາຍ/Archaic ສະບາຽ,, sabaiสบาย,, sabaiสบาย,, sabai-
    'fruit'บัก,, bak*ບັກ, *, *bak,ໝາກ/ຫມາກ,, makผล,, phonหมาก,, mak-
    'lunch'เข้าสวย,, khao suay*ເຂົ້າສວຍ, *, *khao souayອາຫານທ່ຽງ,, ahane thiangอาหารกลางวัน,, ahan klangwanเข้าเที่ยง,, khao thiang-
    'traditional animist ceremony'บายศรี,, baisri*ບາຍສີ, *, *baisiບາສີ,, basiบวงสรวง,, buang suangบายศรีสู่ขวัญ,, baisri su khwan-
    'ice cream'ไอติม,, ai tim*ໄອຕິມ, *, *ai timກາແລ້ມ,, kalèmไอศกรีม,, aisakrimN/A-

    Other Isan-Lao Lexical Differences

    Isan words are not inflected, declined, conjugated, making Isan, like Lao and Thai, an analytic language. Special particle words function in lieu of prefixes and suffixes to mark verb tense. The majority of Isan words are monosyllabic, but compound words and numerous other very common words exist that are not. Topologically, Isan is a subject–verb–object language, although the subject is often dropped. Word order is an important feature of the language.
    Although in formal situations, standard Thai is often used, formality is marked in Isan by polite particles attached to the end of statements, and use of formal pronouns. Compared to Thai, Isan sounds very formal as pronouns are used with greater frequency, which occurs in formal Thai, but is more direct and simple compared to Thai. The ending particles เด้อ or เด function much like ครับ, used by males, and คะ, used by females, in Thai. Negative statements often end in ดอก, which can also be followed by the particle เด้อ and its variant.
    Nouns are not marked for plurals, gender nor are they declined for cases, and do not require an indefinite nor definite article. Plurals are often indicated with the use of classifiers, words to mark the special classes that nouns belong to. For instance, หมา "dog" has the classifier โต which, as its meaning "body" implies, includes all things with legs, such as people, animals, tables, and chairs. "Three dogs" would be rendered as หมา ๓ โต, literally "dog three classifier".
    IsanThaiLaoCategory
    คน, kʰonคน, kʰōnຄົນ, kʰonPeople in general, except clergy and royals.
    คัน, kʰanคัน, kʰānຄັນ, kʰánVehicles, also used for spoons and forks in Thai.
    คู่, kʰuːคู่, kʰûːຄູ່, kʰūːPairs of people, animals, socks, earrings, etc.
    ซบับ, saʔbapฉบับ, tɕʰaʔbàpສະບັບ, saʔbápPapers with texts, documents, newspapers, etc.
    โต, toːตัว, tūaໂຕ, tòːAnimals, shirts, letters; also tables and chairs.
    กก, kokต้น, tônກົກ, kókTrees. ต้น is used in all three for columns, stalks, and flowers.
    หน่วย, nuɛjฟอง, fɔ̄ːŋໜ່ວຍ, nūɛjEggs, fruits, clouds. ผล used for fruits in Thai.

    Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ and การ before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.
    Pronouns
    Pronouns are often dropped in informal contexts, and are often replaced with nicknames or kinship terms, depending on the relation of the speaker to the person to whom is being spoken. Pronouns can also change depending on the register of speech, with many of the more formal pronouns borrowed from formal Thai speech registers. The more formal the language, the more likely that pronouns will not be dropped and that formal pronouns would be used. Pronouns can be pluralised by adding พวก in front of the pronoun, e.g., พวกข้อย is the same as เฮา or พวกเฮา. Age and status is important in determining usage. Younger boys and girls names are often prefixed with บัก and อี่ respectively. Older males and females use อ้าย and เอี้อย respectively instead. People who are much older may be politely addressed as aunt, uncle, mother, father, or even grandmother or grandfather depending on their age. Isan age-based name prefixes are often identical to or similar to vulgar, disparaging age-based name prefixes in Central Thai and should be avoided outside of Lao speaking regions in Thailand.
    PronounThai Royal/IPAThai EquivalentMeaning
    ข้อยkhoy/kʰɔːjฉันI/me
    ข้าน้อยkhanoy/kʰaːnɔːjผม, ดิฉัน I/me
    เฮาhao/hawเราwe/us
    เจ้าchao/tɕawคุณyou
    ท่านthan/tʰaːnท่านyou
    เขาkhao/kʰawเขาhe/him/she/her
    ขะเจ้าkhachao/kʰaʔ.tɕawพวกเขาthey
    เพิ่นphoen/pʰɤnเขาhe/him/she/her
    มันman/manมันit

    Adjectives and adverbs

    There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective.
    Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B", A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด, A is most X.
    Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used.
    Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as พรุ่งนี้ tomorrow or มื้อวานนี้ yesterday.
    Negation: Negation is indicated by placing บ่ before the word being negated.
    Future tense: Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ or ซิ before the verb.
    Past tense: Past tense is indicated by either placing ได้ before the verb or แล้ว after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action.
    Present progressive: To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง can be used before the verb or อยู่ after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม is often used instead of กำลัง.
    The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as a copula, it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare English She is pretty and Isan สาวงาม. There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น, and one for objects and animals, แม่น .
    Unlike English, which indicates questions by a rising tone, or Spanish, which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark redundant in Isan.
    General yes/no questions end in บ่.
    Other question words
    Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.
    Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question.
    The Tai languages of Thailand and Laos share a large corpus of cognate, native vocabulary. They also share many common words and neologisms that were derived from Sanskrit, Pali, Mon and Khmer and other indigenous inhabitants to Indochina. However, there are traits that distinguish Isan both from Thai and its Lao parent language.
    Isan is clearly differentiated from Thai by its Lao intonation and vocabulary. However, Isan differs from Lao in that the former has more English and Chinese loanwords, via Thai, not to mention large amounts of Thai influence. The Lao adopted French and Vietnamese loanwords as a legacy of French Indochina. Other differences between Isan and Lao include terminology that reflect the social and political separation since 1893 as well as differences in neologisms created after this. These differences, and a few very small deviations for certain common words, do not, however, diminish nor erase the Lao characters of the language.
    EnglishIsanLaoThaiEnglishIsanLaoThai
    "language"ภาษา, pʰáː sǎːພາສາ, pʰáː sǎːภาษา, pʰaː sǎː"city"เมือง, mɯ´ːaŋເມືອງ, mɯ´ːaŋเมือง, mɯːaŋ
    "religion"ศาสนา, sȁːt sáʔ nǎːສາສນາ, sȁːt sáʔ nǎːศาสนา, sàːt sàʔ nǎː"government"รัฐบาล, lāt tʰáʔ bàːnຣັຖບາລ, rāt tʰáʔ bàːnรัฐบาล, rát tʰàʔ baːn
    "heaven"สวรรค์, sáʔ vǎnສວັຣຄ໌, sáʔ vǎnสวรรค์, sàʔ wǎn"to be well"สบาย, sáʔ bàːjສະບາຽ, sáʔ bàːjสบาย, sàʔ baːj
    "child"เด็ก, dékເດັກ, dékเด็ก, dèk"to be happy"ดีใจ dìː t͡ɕàːjດີໃຈ, dìː t͡ɕàːjดีใจ, di: tɕaːj
    "street"ถนน, tʰáʔ nǒnຖນົນ, tʰáʔ nǒnถนน, tʰàʔ nǒn"sun"อาทิตย์, ʔaː tʰītອາທິຕຍ໌, ʔaː tʰītอาทิตย์, ʔa: tʰít

    EnglishIsanLaoThaiEnglishIsanLaoThai
    "no", "not"บ่, bɔːບໍ່, bɔːไม่, mâj"to speak"เว้า, vâwເວົ້າ, vâwพูด, pʰûːt
    "how much"ท่อใด, tʰɔ̄ː dàjທໍ່ໃດ, tʰɔ̄ː dàjเท่าไหร่, tʰâw ràj"to do, to make"เฮ็ด, hētເຮັດ, hētทำ, tʰam
    "to learn"เฮียน, híanຮຽນ, híanเรียน, rian"glass"จอก, t͡ʃɔ̏ːkຈອກ, t͡ʃɔ̏ːkแก้ว, kɛ̂ːw
    "yonder"พู้น, pʰûnພຸ້ນ, pʰûnโน่น, nôːn"fruit"หมากไม้, mȁːk mâjໝາກໄມ້, mȁːk mâjผลไม้, pʰǒn láʔ máːj
    "too much"โพด, pʰôːtໂພດ, pʰôːtเกินไป, kɤn paj"to call"เอิ้น, ʔɤˆːnເອີ້ນ, ʔɤˆːnเรียก, rîːak
    "a little"หน่อยนึง, nɔ̄ːy nɯ¯ŋໜ່ອຽນຶ່ງ, nɔ̄ːj nɯ¯ŋนิดหน่อย, nít nɔ`ːj"house, home"เฮือน, hɯ´ːanເຮືອນ, hɯ´ːanบ้าน, bâːn
    "to lower"หลุด, lútຫຼຸດ, lútลด, lót"sausage"ไส้อั่ว, sȁj ʔuaໄສ້ອ່ົວ, sȁj ʔūaไส้กรอก, sâj krɔ̀ːk
    "to walk"ย่าง, ɲāːŋຍ່າງ, ɲāːŋเดิน, dɤːn"older child"ลูกกก, lûːk kókລູກກົກ, lûːk kókลูกคนโต, lûːk kʰon toː
    "frangipani blossom"ดอกจำปา, dɔ̏ːk t͡ʃam paːດອກຈຳປາ, dɔ̏ːk t͡ʃam paːดอกลั่นทม, dɔ`ːk lân tʰom"tomato"หมากเล่น, mȁːk lēːnໝາກເລັ່ນ, mȁːk lēːnมะเขือเทศ, mâʔ kʰɯ̌ːa tʰêːt
    "much", "many"หลาย, lǎːjຫຼາຍ, lǎːjมาก, mâːk"father-in-law"พ่อเฒ่า, pʰɔ̄ː tʰȁwພໍ່ເຖົ້າ, pʰɔ̄ː tʰȁwพ่อตา, pʰɔ̑ː taː
    "to stop"เซา, sáwເຊົາ, sáwหยุด, jùt"to like"มัก, mākມັກ, mākชอบ, tɕʰɔ̂ːp
    "good luck"โซกดี, sôːk diːໂຊຄດີ, sôːk diːโชคดี, tɕʰôːk diː"delicious"แซบ, sɛ̂ːpແຊບ, sɛ̂ːpอร่อย, ʔàʔ rɔ`j
    "fun"ม่วน, mūanມ່ວນ, mūanสนุก, sàʔ nùk"really"อิหลี, ʔīː lǐːອີ່ຫຼີ, ʔīː lǐːจริง, tɕiŋ
    "elegant"โก้, kôːໂກ້, kôːหรูหรา, rǔː rǎː"ox"งัว, ŋúaːງົວ, ŋúaːวัว, wua

    EnglishIsanLaoThaiEnglishIsanLaoThai
    "ice"น้ำแข็ง, nâm kʰɛ̌ːŋນ້ຳກ້ອນ, nâm kɔ̂ːnน้ำแข็ง, náːm kʰɛ̌ŋ"plain" เปล่า, pawລ້າ, lâːเปล่า, plàːw
    "necktie"เน็กไท, nēk tʰájກາຣະວັດ, kaː rāʔ vátเน็กไท, nék tʰáj"province"จังหวัด, t͡ʃàŋ vátແຂວງ, kʰwɛ̌ːŋจังหวัด, tɕaŋ wàt
    "wine"ไวน์, vájແວງ vɛ́ːŋไวน์, waːj"pho"ก๋วยเตี๋ยว, kuǎj tǐawເຝີ, fɤ̌ːก๋วยเตี๋ยว, kuǎj tǐaw
    "January"มกราคม, mōk káʔ ráː kʰómມັງກອນ, máŋ kɔ̀ːnมกราคม, mók kàʔ raː kʰom"paper"กะดาษ, káʔ dȁːtເຈັ້ຽ, t͡ɕìaกระดาษ, kràʔ dàːt
    "window"หน้าต่าง, nȁː tāːŋປ່ອງຢ້ຽມ, pɔ̄ːŋ jîamหน้าต่าง, nâː tàːŋ"book"หนังสือ, nǎŋ.sɨ̌ːປຶ້ມ, pɨ̂mหนังสือ, nǎng.sɯ̌ː
    "motorcycle"มอเตอร์ไซค์, mɔ́ː tɤ̀ː sájຣົຖຈັກ, rōt t͡ʃákมอเตอร์ไซค์, mɔː tɤː saj"butter"เนย, /nɤ´ːj/ເບີຣ໌, /bɤ`ː/เนย, /nɤːj/

    EnglishIsanLaoThaiEnglishIsanLaoThai
    "to work"เฮ็ดงาน, hēt ŋáːnເຮັດວຽກ hēt vîakทำงาน, tʰam ŋaːn"papaya"บักหุ่ง, bák hūŋໝາກຫຸ່ງ, mȁːk hūŋมะละกอ, màʔ làʔ kɔː
    "fried beef"ทอดซี้น, tʰɔ̂ːt sîːnຂົ້ວຊີ້ນ, kʰȕa sîːnเนื้อทอด, nɯ´ːa tʰɔ̂ːt"hundred"ร้อย, lɔ̂ːjຮ້ອຍ, hɔ̂ːjร้อย, rɔ́ːj
    "barbecued pork"หมูปิ้ง, mǔː pîːŋປີ້ງໝູ, pîːŋ mǔːหมูย่าง, mǔː jâːŋ"ice cream"ไอติม, ʔaj timກາແລ້ມ, kaː lɛ̂ːmไอศกรีม, ʔaj sàʔ kriːm