The conversion of the amino acid glutamine to α-ketoglutarate takes place in two reaction steps: 1. Hydrolysis of the amino group of glutamine yielding glutamate and ammonium. Catalyzing enzyme: glutaminase 2. Glutamate can be excreted or can be further metabolized to α-ketoglutarate. For the conversion of glutamate to α-ketoglutarate three different reactions are possible: Catalyzing enzymes:
Glutaminolysis takes place in all proliferating cells, such as lymphocytes, thymocytes, colonocytes, adipocytes and especially in tumor cells. In tumor cells the citric acid cycle is truncated due to an inhibition of the enzyme aconitase by high concentrations of reactive oxygen species Aconitase catalyzes the conversion of citrate to isocitrate. On the other hand, tumor cells over express phosphate dependent glutaminase and NAD-dependent malate decarboxylase, which in combination with the remaining reaction steps of the citric acid cycle from α-ketoglutarate to citrate impart the possibility of a new energy producing pathway, the degradation of the amino acid glutamine to glutamate, aspartate, pyruvate CO2, lactate and citrate. Besides glycolysis in tumor cells glutaminolysis is another main pillar for energy production. High extracellular glutamine concentrations stimulate tumor growth and are essential for cell transformation. On the other hand, a reduction of glutamine correlates with phenotypical and functional differentiation of the cells.
three ATP at a time for the NADH + H+ produced within the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase reaction, the malate dehydrogenase reaction and the malate decarboxylase reaction.
Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the plasma and an additional energy source in tumor cells especially when glycolytic energy production is low due to a high amount of the dimeric form of M2-PK.
Glutamine and its degradation products glutamate and aspartate are precursors for nucleic acid and serine synthesis.
Glutaminolysis is insensitive to high concentrations of reactive oxygen species.
Due to the truncation of the citric acid cycle the amount of acetyl-CoA infiltrated in the citric acid cycle is low and acetyl-CoA is available for de novo synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. The fatty acids can be used for phospholipid synthesis or can be released.
Fatty acids represent an effective storage vehicle for hydrogen. Therefore, the release of fatty acids is an effective way to get rid of cytosolic hydrogen produced within the glycolytic glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase reaction.
Glutamate and fatty acids are immunosuppressive. The release of both metabolites may protect tumor cells from immune attacks.
It has been discussed that the glutamate pool may drive the endergonic uptake of other amino acids by system ASC.
Glutamine can be converted to citrate without NADH production, uncoupling NADH production from biosynthesis.
