Cahuilla language
Cahuilla, or Ivilyuat, is an endangered Uto-Aztecan language, spoken by the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the Coachella Valley, San Gorgonio Pass and San Jacinto Mountains region of southern California. Cahuilla call themselves ʔívil̃uwenetem or Iviatam–speakers of Ivilyuat –or táxliswet meaning "person." A 1990 census revealed 35 speakers in an ethnic population of 800. With such a decline, Ivilyuat is classified as "critically endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger as most speakers are middle-aged or older with limited transmission rates to children.
Three dialects are known to exist: Desert, Mountain and Pass, as well as some other sub-dialects.
Classification
Cahuilla is found in the Uto-Aztecan language family where it is denoted alongside Cupeño to be a Cupan language within the larger Californian language subgroup where it joins Serrano, Kitanemuk, Luiseño and Tongva. This Californian subgroup consisting of Cupan and Serran languages was once titled the Takic group which has fallen out of use.Exonyms and endonyms
One of the indigenous designations for the language is ʔívil̃uʔat, alongside 'Ívillu'at, where Cahuilla could call themselves ʔívil̃uqalet /ʔívil̃uwenetem, 'speaker of ʔívil̃uʔat.' Other variations include Ivilyuat and Ivia. However, both the language and the people are oftentimes called 'Cahuilla.'Phonology
Cahuilla has the following vowel and consonant phonemes :Consonants
Consonants in parentheses only occur in loans.Vowels
- and are allophones of and, respectively, when in an unstressed or secondary stress position. However, both and appear in the stressed position and are preceding any of the following consonants:,,,,. Lengthened version of both result in their opened variant occurring. Finally, word final instances of and are always open.
- Both long and short only appear in borrowings.
- As an allophone of, -distribution is unclear, conforming to the same rules of and sometimes. The word final variant of is always the open.
- Similar to the high and mid vowels, sees similar allophonic distribution where occurs under stress and falls in unstressed positions. is found in monosyllabic and polysyllabic words containing only one instance of the.
- The semivowels, and, are difficult to distinguish from their counterpart diphthongs: and. When the semivowel is following an or, it is realized as or . When, or is followed by, the usually becomes half-long.
Voiceless vowels
- = 'owl'
- = 'ceremonial chief'
- = 'the day before yesterday'
- = 'my breast'
- = 'his nose'
- = 'my shoulder'
Phonotactics
Stress
There are three primary types of stress in Ivilyuat: primary, secondary and unstressed. Primary is distinguished from an unstressed syllable by loudness and elevation of pitch. Secondary stress carries less volume and the pitch is not as elevated as with primary stress. Generally, stress falls on the first syllable of the root, however there are numerous cases of doubt and ambiguity. The general pattern is:... CV̀CVCV́CVCV̀CVCV̀..., where regular alternation occurs after the primary stress and secondary stress is added to the first syllable if followed by an additional -CV- group without stress. Long vowels function also as a distinct -CV- unit and take stress with the following syllable unit also taking stress:... CV́VCV̀... This process can be seen here:- CV́VCCV̀CVC : 'palo verde,' plur.
- CV́CVCV̀CVC : 'one-eyed ones'
Grammar
Morphology
Ivilyuat consists of rich morphological phenomena, especially through its descriptive properties. For example, the word 'arrow,' or húyal, is derived from 'it is straightened' which has been transformed into 'that which is straightened' or 'the straightened one', where the verb stem 'to straighten' is immediately recognizable. This phenomenon permeates the language such that some words are examples of a double derivation, such as 'blue/green'. The word for the colour, túkvašnekiš, is derived from 'that which comes from heaven' which in turn comes from 'the thing where carrying takes place,' where túkvaš means 'sky' and -nek is from nek-en.Nouns and noun phrases
Some, but not all, nouns occur in two different states: absolutive and construct. Outside of these two states fall certain other nouns that both refuse to take a P1 nor a construct state form such as ʔáwal and almost all additional animal terms which cannot be directly possessed; however, there is indication that some of these nouns show historical ties to both states, and issues present with either state usage tend to be semantic.Distinguishing a noun from a verb can sometimes be difficult in Ivilyuat, however, whereas both verbs and nouns can take P1 prefixes, only nouns can take P2 ones.
Absolutive and construct states
Absolutive, also known as non-possessed nouns, and construct states help in the classification of nouns. For nouns that take either state, the process can either exhibit itself where the noun takes one form, both forms or even more productive derivations. For example, the word for flower/blossom can be: séʔiš, séʔi, séʔiški where séʔ- means to blossom and iš is the relativizing and absolutive suffix. Thus, séʔiš means 'blossom/flower' or, more literally, 'having completed the act of blossoming.'The absolutive state occurs when a relational expression is transformed into an absolute expression, or when a predicate becomes an argument that can then be assigned to a particular place in a predicate. This state is constructed using the absolutive suffix, being one of four consonants. The suffix often is found in amalgamation with the preceding vowel, mostly -a or -i; however the case may be that there are more complex underlying functions than just that of the absolutive suffix.
The construct state is marked with P1 relational constructions and translates very roughly to possession.
- né-puš : 'my eye'
- né-ʔaš : 'my pet'
- né-téviŋiki : 'my little basket'
- púč-il̃ : 'the eye, seed'
- ʔáč-il̃ : 'the pet'
- téviŋi-l̃ : 'the little basket'
- ne-téviŋi-l̃-ki : 'my little basket'
Inflection
Prefixes
Inflection in Ivilyuat is realized through both prefixation and suffixation, where prefixes mark the distinction of persons and suffixes mark plurality and case. Both O and P2 may co-occur, which sees O precede P2; P2 may precede P1. Never can all three prefixes occur simultaneously. O, for example, cannot combine with P1 within nouns ; P2 can only occur in nouns.- he- is only found alongside monosyllabic noun stems.
- -y only occurs if an O prefix precedes it.
Suffixes
The object is marked with the oblique case suffix -i, -y and -iy which sometimes includes glottalization either through insertion or infixation:
- táxliswet : 'the Indigenous person'
- táxlisweʔt-i : 'id.'
- táxliswet-em : 'the Indigenous people'
- táxliswet-m-i : 'id.'
- kú-t : 'fire'
- kú-t-ŋa / kú-ŋa : 'in the fire'
- kú-yka / *kút-ika : 'into the fire'
- táxliswet-m-i : 'the Indigenous people'
- téma-l-ŋa-x / téma-ŋa-x : 'from the earth'
Pronouns
Nominalizers
, or the creation of nouns from verbs and adverbs as is the case in Ivilyuat, occurs fairly frequently.Verbial nominalizers
Seiler lists ten nominalizers attached to the verb playing a wide range of functions.-ka 'inceptive'
Using Seiler's terminology, this nominalizer indicates an oriented relationship in the noun/action, very similar to the nominal suffix '-ka'. As tense plays little role in the language, this should not be taken to mean 'future.'
meškʷakatem
me–ʔeš–kʷá–kat–em
O–P2–STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
3sg. – 1pl. – 'eat' – nom. – plur.
them we eat
lit. 'We are one who are going to eat them.';
'We are going to eat them.'
ʔemečemkiʔiwen ʔemešwayikinikatem
ʔeme–čem–kíʔiw–wen.. ʔeme-eš–wáyikini–kat–em
O–P1–STEM–SUFF. .. O–P2–STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
2pl. – 1pl. – 'wait' – durat. .. 2pl. – 1pl. – 'feed' – nom. – plur.
you we wait .. you we feed
'We are waiting for you so that we may be going to feed you.'
-k 'excellence'
This denotes goodness or excellence.
ʔeʔ ʔetmuak
ʔéʔ.. ʔet–mú–ak
PRON. .. P2–STEM–SUFF.
2sg. .. 2sg. – 'shoot' – nom.
you.. you shoot excelling
'You are a good shooter.'
neʔ hennehak
néʔ .. hen–néh–ak
PRON. .. P2–STEM–SUFF.
1sg. .. 1sg. – 'weave baskets' – nom.
I .. I weave baskets excelling
'I am a good basket weaver.'
-nax 'supposed to fulfill function'
This denotes where one is supposed to fulfill a specialized function, notably in a socio-cultural context.
peypiiʔnax
pe–y–píiʔ–nax
O–P
3sg. – 3sg. – 'bewitch' – nom.
'the one supposed to bewitch him.'
taxmuʔnax
táxmuʔ-nax
'sing' – nom.
'one who is supposed to sing'
-š 'completed action or process'
Denotes a completed action or being completed as a process.
tamiiti piytehwiš
támiit–i .. pi–y–téhw–iš
STEM–SUFF. .. O–P2–STEM–SUFF.
'sun' – .. 3sg. – 3sg. – 'find' – nom.
'the one that found the sun'
-vaš 'performing in a special situation'
Denotes performing an act in a specially defined situation. Compare the following examples:
penpayniqal
pe–n–páy–ni–qal
O–P1–STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
3sg. – 1sg. – 'daylight' – –
'I'm making it daylight' i.e., 'I'm sitting up all night.'
peypaynivaš
pe–y–páy–ni–vaš
O–P2–STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
3sg. – 3sg. – 'daylight' – – nom.
'the one that makes it daylight' i.e., 'the morning star'
-wet/-et 'habitual or competent performer'
Functioning similarly to '-vaš,' denotes a competent or habitual performer. When in combination with the durative or stative, it takes the form '-et.' Compare the following examples:
nuʔinqalet
núʔin–qal–et
STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
'tell' – – nom.
'the one that tells what to do,' 'leader'
nuʔinwenetem
nuʔin–wen–et–em
STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.–SUFF.
'tell' – – nom. – plur.
'the ones that tell what to do,' leaders'
taxnuʔinqal
tax–Ø–núʔin–qal
O–P1–STEM–SUFF.
indef. – 3sg. – 'tell' –
'He tells what to do.'
taxnuʔinqalet
tax–Ø–núʔin–qal–et–em
O–P1–STEM–SUFF.–SUFF.
indef. – 3sg. – 'tell' – – nom. – plur.
'Leaders'
hičiwet
híči–wet
'go' – nom.
'one that habitually goes.'
-ʔa & -at/-il̃ 'abstract nominalizers'
These makes abstract verbs into nouns. Where '-at' and '-il̃'/'-ʔil̃' can attach to abstract verbs with few restrictions, '-ʔa' is restricted to abstract verbs which are then possessed once nominalized.
ʔaminat
ʔámin–at
'throw' – nom.
'the throwing,' 'the orphan'
neʔaminʔa
ne–ʔámin–ʔa
1sg. – 'throw' – nom.
'my throwing'
kʷaʔisniʔil̃
kʷáʔisni–ʔil̃
'write' – nom.
'the writing'
nekʷaʔisniʔa
ne–kʷáisni–ʔa
1sg. – 'write' – nom.
'my writing'
-piš 'unrealized subordination'
Nominalizes verbs that both indicates subordination and something that has not yet happened.
vuvanpiš
vúvan–piš
'hit' – nom.
'an insect that stings'
-vel/-ve 'event already occurring or occurred'
Nominalizes verbs in regard to occurrence of the action.
kupvel
kúp–vel
'sleep' – nom.
'the bed'
nekupve
ne–kúp–ve
1sg – 'sleep' – nom.
'my bed'
-vaʔal 'located event'
A complex of suffixes where the verbal suffix '-vaʔ' indicates 'locale, place' such as:
pa hemčeŋenvaʔ
pa .. hem–Ø–čeŋen–vaʔ
there .. 3pl. – 'dance' – 'place'
'Where they are dancing.'
Combining with '-al,' the abstract nominalizer, there become forms such as:
pisivaʔal
pís–ivaʔ–al
'go out' – 'place' – nom.
'the place to go out,' 'toilet'
hempisivaʔa
Ø–hem–pís–ivaʔ–a
3rd – 3pl. – 'go out' – 'place' – nom.
'their toilet'
Adverbial nominalizers
There is only one adverbial nominalizer according to Seiler's Grammar, which is '-viš.' It can either affix to adverbs to denote being from a place or time or denote ordering.PLACE/TIME
kičanxwanvičem
kíčan–xwan–viš–em
SOUTH–'toward'–NOM.–PLUR.
'ones who are from the South.'
PLACE/TIME
vaaniŋaxvičem
váani––ŋa–x–viš–em
Banning –LOC–ABL–NOM.–PLUR.
'ones who are from Banning.'
ORDERING
mulukviš
múluk–viš
'first'–NOM.
'one who is first.'
Declension
There are three major forms of declension in Ivilyuat: oriented relationship, diminutive and special marking.The suffix '-ka' indicated an oriented relationship which is used most notably in kinship terms, '-mal'/'-mal̃'/'-ma' marks the diminutive and '-k' indicates someone or something that is marked in a special or notable way.
ORIENTED RELATIONSHIP
peynesik
pe–y–nési–k
0–P2–STEM–SUFF.
3sg. – 3sg. – 'niece' – orient.rel.
'She who is related to her, the niece.'
DIMINUTIVE
wayiʔmalem
wayiʔ–mal–em
'bowl of clay'–DIM–PLUR.
' bowls of clay'
SPECIAL MARKING
hennaqak
hen–naqa–k
P2–STEM–SUFF.
3pl. – 'ears' – spec.mark.
'I am one who is marked with regard to their ears.'
Verbs and verb phrases
Ivilyuat verbs show agreement with both their subject and object. Person agreement, of which there are three, is shown by prefixes and number agreement, of which there are two, is shown by suffixes. Additionally, verbs take both inflectional and derivational affixes, where derivational are formed in the root. As such, an inflectional affix can follow a derivational affix, but a derivational affix can never follow an inflectional one. To be classed as a verb, the word must include both a subject prefix and at least one non-personal inflectional affix; transitive verbs must include also an object prefix.Within verbs of the Desert dialect, tense plays almost no role, expressing past on nouns and noun phrases with the suffix -ʔa. Kinship terms, though, are excluded and use a form roughly translated to be 'past existence of kinsperson.' However, while tense plays little role within the verb phrase, aspect and mode are present throughout.
- Aspect
- *Status
- **+ Realized
- **– Realized
- ***Possible
- ***Expected
- ***Desired
- *Perspective
- **+ Absolute
- **– Absolute
Inflection
Derivation
Derivation within the verb phrase takes on a variety of characteristics. Derivational affixes can be classified into one of two categories: endocentric and exocentric, where endocentrically deriving affixes occur about twice as often as exocentric ones. The difference is established upon the change in distribution class which can take the form of a derivation of a verbal stem from a nominal basis or a transitive stem from an intransitive one.Syntax
Although Ivilyuat employs a relatively free word order, its underlying classification is that of a subject–object–verb language. Its verbs show heavy agreement, indicating the subject and object even when not overtly present, and the subject and object may appear after the verb, highlighting specific usage.Classifiers
Ivilyuat contains about a dozen or so classifiers notably indicating the type of noun being modified or possessed. Classifiers cover nouns ranging from general, inanimate items -ʔa in ne-m-éxam-ʔa 'it my thing' lit., 'it somehow doing this way,' to trees, plants, fruits, meats, animals and moieties.General
- -ʔa
- kíʔiwʔa
- ʔáyʔa
- číʔa
- wésʔa
- séxʔa
- waʔ / wáwa
- čáxni
- téneq
- ʔaš
- kíl̃iw
Other classifiers include kinds of meat, animals and moieties. Meat breaks down into waʔ/wáwa, čáxni and téneq. The most important classifier for animals is the relation to animals as pets, expressed with ʔaš, which includes horses, cottontail rabbits, turtles, coyotes, bears, snakes, fish and eagles amongst others; however, this does not include wild cat. Finally, ʔívil̃uwenetem were broken down into two moieties: ʔísil̃ and túkut where individuals needed to marry outside of their moiety, i.e. a Wildcat man must marry a Coyote woman and vice versa. This was expressed using kíl̃iw.
Demonstratives
Ivilyuat uses a single demonstrative Ɂi that takes the form Ɂi before sonorants and ɁiɁ elsewhere.It can be modified with deictic markers meaning local or distant/remote.
The complex and simple forms have no difference in perceived meaning according to Seiler. The inflection agrees with the sentence itself where the deictic marker co-ordinates with the subject or verb such as in "ɁiɁ peɁ menil̃" meaning "this over there, the moon," as peɁ is inflected to mark the singular subject menil̃. Additionally, there are clitic forms of this marker: pe, pee and pey.
Vocabulary
Word origins
A vast majority of Ivilyuat words come from Uto-Aztecan roots and there is a large shared vocabulary between neighbouring languages such as Luiseño or Serrano. Due to language contact, however, many Spanish words have been adopted into the language, such as máys or ʔavugáaduʔ from Spanish maíz and abogado, respectively. Conversely, Ivilyuat has taken little to no English loan words.Kinship terms
Ivilyuat can either express kinship terms relationally or through an establishing expression.Numerals
Ivilyuat uses a base-ten system with unique words for 'five' and 'ten.'Basic sample vocabulary and language comparison
Place names
Few place names within Cahuilla remained the same over the years with English or Spanish names taking over. Here are several examples:- Káviñiš, Qàwal hémaʔ and Pàl síwiš – Indian Wells
- Séx – Palm Springs
- Kíš čáwal – White Water
- Pàl téwet – Indio
- Wìyal ʔámuyka – Torres Peak
- Yamesével – Mission Creek
- Qáwiš húlawet – near La Quinta
Writing systems
IPA notation
Use and revitalization effortsAlvin Siva of the Los Coyotes Band of Cahuilla and Cupeño Indians, a fluent speaker, died on June 26, 2009. He preserved the tribe's traditional bird songs, sung in the Cahuilla language, by teaching them to younger generations of Cahuilla people. Katherine Siva Saubel was a native Cahuilla speaker dedicated to preserving the language.In April 2014, the University of California, Riverside offered free public workshops in the Cahuilla language. |