Arab Sind


During the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, the governor of Sind was an official who administered the Muslim province of Sind.
The governor was the chief Muslim official in the province and was responsible for maintaining security in the region. As the leader of the provincial military, he was also in charge of carrying out campaigns against the non-Muslim kingdoms of India. Governors appointed to the region were selected either directly by the caliph, or by an authorized subordinate, and remained in office until they either died or were dismissed.

Geography

Sind was a frontier province of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates from its conquest in c. 711 until the mid-ninth century. Situated at the far eastern end of the caliphate, it consisted of the territories held by the Muslims in India, which at the time were centered in the Indus region. Sind proper was bounded on the west by Makran, on the northwest by Sijistan and the district of Turan, on the northeast by Multan, on the east by the Thar Desert, on the southeast by the non-Muslim Hind, and on the southwest by the Indian Ocean.

Conquest of Sind

In the history of the Muslim conquests of the caliphate, Sind was a relatively late achievement, occurring almost a century after the Hijrah. Military raids against India had been undertaken by the Muslims as early as the reign of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, but the pace of expansion in the region was initially slow. Several governors were appointed to the Indian frontier and tasked with conducting campaigns in the east. Some of these expeditions were successful, but others ended in defeat and a number of governors were killed while serving there. In the caliphate of Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyah, the region of Makran was subdued and a garrison was established there. Over the course of the following decades, the Muslims gradually worked their way further east, conquering the district of Qusdar and raiding the areas around Qandabil and al-Qiqan.
Sind was conquered in c. 711 by Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Thaqafi, who had been sent to undertake a punitive expedition against Dahir, the king of Sind. After marching through Makran and defeating its inhabitants, Muhammad entered Sind and attacked the port city of Daybul, which fell after a siege and was settled with a number of Muslim colonists. Following this victory, Muhammad worked his way north and encountered Dahir, whom he defeated and killed. He then spent the next few years campaigning in Sind and Multan, forcing the various cities of the country to submit to him. This period of conquests continued until 715, when the caliph al-Walid ibn 'Abd al-Malik died; shortly after the ascension of the new caliph Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Malik, Muhammad was arrested and executed, and a replacement was sent by the government to take control of Sind.

Governors

Umayyad rule

As a result of its conquest, Sind became a province of the Islamic Caliphate and governors were appointed to administer the region. As the commander of a frontier province, the governor was responsible for protecting the country against foreign incursions, and could carry out raids into Hind at his discretion. The governor's jurisdiction usually included, besides Sind itself, the regions of Makran, Turan and Multan; in addition, any territories that he conquered in India were added to his area of authority.
In the administrative hierarchy of the Umayyad caliphate, the responsibility for selecting governors to the province was assigned to the governor of Iraq, or, if that position was vacant, to the governor of Basra. Unless he received specific commands from the caliph, the governor of Iraq had the authority to appoint and dismiss governors to Sind as he pleased and he was in charge of supervising their activities in the province.
According to the historian Khalifah ibn Khayyat, after the downfall of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim the responsibilities of the governor of Sind were temporarily divided between two officials, of whom one was in charge of military affairs and the other was in charge of taxation. This change was soon rescinded and the next governor, Habib ibn al-Muhallab al-Azdi, had full authority over both the fiscal and military affairs on the province.
As a general rule, provincial governorships in the Umayyad era were almost always staffed exclusively by Arabs, and this trend was reflected in the appointees to Sind during this period. Tribal politics also played a strong role in the selection and dismissal of governors; if the governor of Iraq was a Qaysi, then his governor to Sind would likely be a Qaysi, and if he was a Yamani, his selection would likely be a Yamani as well. There were, however, some exceptions to this; Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri, for example, was initially appointed to Sind by a fellow Qaysi, but was allowed to retain his position for two years after the governor of Iraq was replaced with a Yamani.
The governors of Sind in the Umayyad period undertook extensive campaigns against the non-Muslim kingdoms of Hind, but the results of their efforts were extremely mixed. Al-Junayd's campaigns seem to have been very successful, but his successor Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi ran into difficulties and the Muslims were forced to retreat from Hind. The next governor, Al Hakam ibn Awana, vigorously campaigned in India and initially achieved some victories, but he too suffered a reversal of fortune and was eventually killed. Raids into Hind continued after al-Hakam's death, but it appears that no major territorial gains were achieved, and the Muslim presence in India remained largely restricted to the Indus valley region.
As part of his efforts to secure the Muslim position in Sind, al-Hakam constructed the military garrison of al-Mahfuzah, which he made into his capital. Shortly after this, his lieutenant 'Amr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Qasim built a second city near al-Mahfuzah, which he called al-Mansurah. This latter city eventually became the permanent administrative capital of Arab Sind, and it served as the seat of the Umayyad and Abbasid governors.
The names of the caliphal governors of Sind are preserved in the histories of Khalifah ibn Khayyat and al-Ya'qubi. Some differences exist between the two authors' versions; these are noted below. The Futuh al-Buldan by al-Baladhuri, which focuses on the military conquests of the early Muslim state, also contains the names of many of the governors who served in Sind.
NameYearsNature of
Termination		Notes
Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Thaqafi711–715DismissedConquered Sind. Appointed by the governor of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi
Habib ibn al-Muhallab al-Azdi715–717DismissedAppointed either by the caliph Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Malik or by Salih ibn 'Abd al-Rahman
Abd al-Malik ibn Mismafrom 717DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Appointed by the governor of al-Basrah, 'Adi ibn Artah al-Fazari
'Amr ibn Muslim al-Bahilito 720OverthrownNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Appointed by 'Adi ibn Artah
'Ubaydallah ibn 'Ali al-Sulamifrom 721DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Appointed by the governor of Iraq, 'Umar ibn Hubayrah al-Fazari
Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murrito 726DismissedAppointed by 'Umar ibn Hubayrah
Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbifrom 726DiedAppointed by the governor of Iraq, Khalid ibn 'Abdallah al-Qasri
Al Hakam ibn Awanato 740KilledAppointed by Khalid ibn 'Abdallah
'Amr ibn Muhammad al-Thaqafi740–744DismissedSon of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. Appointed by the governor of Iraq, Yusuf ibn 'Umar al-Thaqafi
Yazid ibn 'Irar al-Kalbi740sOverthrownName and details of governorship given variously in the sources. See especially this note

Abbasid rule (to 854)

At the time of the Abbasid Revolution, Sind was in the hands of the anti-Umayyad rebel Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi. Following their victory over the Umayyads, the Abbasids at first left Mansur in control of the province, but this state of affairs did not last and the new dynasty sent Musa ibn Ka'b al-Tamimi to take over the region. He was able to defeat Mansur and enter Sind, thereby firmly establishing Abbasid control over the province.
After the new dynasty came to power, Sind's administrative status was somewhat ambiguous, with governors being appointed either directly by the caliph or by the governor of Khurasan, Abu Muslim. This situation lasted only until Abu Muslim's murder in 755; thereafter, appointments to Sind were almost always handled by the caliph and the central government.
In the first century of the Abbasid caliphate, governors continued to conduct raids against the non-Muslim kingdoms of Hind, and some minor gains were achieved. The historians also recorded the various struggles of the governors to maintain stability within Sind, as internecine tribal warfare, Alid partisans and disobedient Arab factions intermittently threatened the government's control over the region. Another potential source of trouble came from the governors themselves; a few of the individuals appointed to Sind attempted to rebel against the Abbasids, and had to be subdued by force of arms. In general, however, Abbasid authority in Sind remained effective during this period of their rule.
Under the Abbasids, Arabs continued to frequently occupy the governorship, but over time the selections became somewhat more diverse. Under the caliphs al-Mahdi and al-Rashid, non-Arab clients were sometimes appointed to Sind. In the caliphate of al-Ma'mun, the governorship was given to a member of the Persian Barmakid family, and the province remained under their rule for a number of years. After the Barmakids, the Turkish general Itakh was given control of Sind, although he deputed the actual administration of the province to an Arab. During this period several members of the prominent Muhallabid family served in Sind; their combined administrations spanned over a period of more than three decades. Under al-Rashid, a few minor members of the Abbasid family were also appointed as governors of the province.
NameYearsNature of
Termination		Notes
Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi747–751RevoltedInitially took Sind as an anti-Umayyad rebel, then confirmed as governor by the Abbasids
Mughallis al-'Abdi751KilledAppointed either by the caliph al-Saffah or by the governor of Khurasan, Abu Muslim
Musa ibn Ka'b al-Tamimi752–754ResignedAppointed either by al-Saffah or by Abu Muslim
'Uyaynah ibn Musa al-Tamimi754–760RevoltedSon of Musa ibn Ka'b, who appointed him
'Umar ibn Hafs Hazarmard760–768DismissedMember of the Muhallabid family. Appointed by the caliph al-Mansur
Hisham ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi768–774DismissedAppointed by al-Mansur
Bistam ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi774DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Brother of Hisham ibn 'Amr, who appointed him
Ma'bad ibn al-Khalil al-Tamimi774-775/6DiedVariant name given by Ibn Khayyat. Appointed by al-Mansur
Muhammad ibn Ma'bad al-Tamimi775DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Son of Ma'bad ibn al-Khalil, who he succeeded as governor
Rawh ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi776–778DismissedMember of the Muhallabid family. Appointed by the caliph al-Mahdi
Nasr ibn Muhammad al-Khuza'i778–781DiedAppointed by al-Mahdi
Al-Zubayr ibn al-'Abbas781DismissedNot listed by Ibn Khayyat. Never went to Sind. Appointed by al-Mahdi
Sufyah ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi781–782DismissedName given variously in the sources. Brother of Hisham ibn 'Amr. Appointed by al-Mahdi
Layth ibn Tarif782–785DismissedAppointed by al-Mahdi
Muhammad ibn Layth785–786DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Son of Layth ibn Tarif. Appointed during the caliphate of al-Hadi
Layth ibn Tariffrom 786DismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Re-appointed, this time by the caliph al-Rashid
Salim al-Yunusi/Burnusi780sDiedSalim's nisbah is given variously in the sources. Appointed by al-Rashid
Ibrahim ibn Salim al-Yunusi/Burnusi780sDismissedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Son of Salim, who he succeeded as governor
Ishaq ibn Sulayman al-Hashimifrom 790DismissedFirst cousin twice removed of al-Rashid, who appointed him
Muhammad ibn Tayfur al-Himyari790sDismissedName given variously in the sources. Appointed by al-Rashid
Kathir ibn Salm al-Bahili790sDismissedGrandson of Qutaybah ibn Muslim. Deputy governor for his brother Sa'id ibn Salm
Muhammad ibn 'Adi al-Taghlibi790sResignedNephew of Hisham ibn 'Amr. Appointed by the governor of al-Basrah, 'Isa ibn Ja'far al-Hashimi
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Sulayman790sResignedAppointed either by al-Rashid or by Muhammad ibn 'Adi
'Abdallah ibn 'Ala' al-Dabbi790sUnspecifiedNot listed by al-Ya'qubi. Appointed by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Sulayman
Ayyub ibn Ja'far al-Hashimito 800DiedSecond cousin once removed of al-Rashid, who appointed him
Dawud ibn Yazid al-Muhallabi800–820DiedLast governor listed by Ibn Khayyat. Member of the Muhallabid family. Appointed by al-Rashid
Bishr ibn Dawud al-Muhallabi820–826RevoltedSon of Dawud ibn Yazid, who he succeeded as governor. Confirmed in office by the caliph al-Ma'mun
Hajib ibn Salih826ExpelledAppointed by al-Ma'mun
Ghassan ibn 'Abbad828–831ResignedAppointed by al-Ma'mun
Musa ibn Yahya al-Barmaki831–836DiedMember of the Barmakid family. Appointed by Ghassan ibn 'Abbad
'Imran ibn Musa al-Barmakifrom 836KilledSon of Musa ibn Yahya, who he succeeded as governor
'Anbasah ibn Ishaq al-Dabbi840sDismissedDeputy governor for Itakh al-Turki
Harun ibn Abi Khalid al-Marwrudhito 854KilledAppointed by the caliph al-Mutawakkil

Decline of Abbasid authority

Over the course of the ninth century, Abbasid authority in Sind gradually waned. A new era in the history of the province began in 854, when 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-Aziz al-Habbari, a local Arab resident of Sind, was appointed to govern the country. Shortly after this, the central government entered a period of crisis which crippled its ability to maintain its authority in the provinces; this stagnation allowed 'Umar to rule Sind without any interference from the caliphal court at Samarra. 'Umar ended up creating a hereditary dynasty, that of the Habbarids, which ruled in al-Mansurah for almost two centuries. Although the Habbarids continued to acknowledge the Abbasids as their nominal suzerains, the effective authority of the caliph largely disappeared and the Habbarids were de facto independent.
In spite of their loss of effective control over Sind, the Abbasid government continued to formally appoint governors to the province. In 871 the caliphal regent Abu Ahmad ibn al-Mutawakkil invested the Saffarid Ya'qub ibn al-Layth with the governorship of Sind. In 875 the general Masrur al-Balkhi was given control of most of the eastern provinces, including Sind. Four years after this, Sind was again assigned to the Saffarids, with 'Amr ibn al-Layth receiving the appointment. These appointments, however, were purely nominal, and it is unlikely that these individuals exercised any actual authority over the local rulers within the province.
As the central government's authority over Sind declined, the region underwent a period of decentralization. Habbarid authority appears to have been largely restricted to Sind proper, and did not extend to Makran, Turan and Multan, which all broke away under separate dynasties. Some of the rulers in these regions also continued to nominally recognize the caliph as their ruler, but were effectively self-governing; others rejected the caliph's authority altogether and were outright independent. These minor dynasties continued to govern in their respective localities until the early eleventh century, when the Ghaznavids invaded India and annexed most of the Muslim territories in the country.